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The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system
Open accessAbstract
In 2019-2020 a new coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2 was identified as the causative agent of a several acute respiratory infection named COVID-19, which is causing a worldwide pandemic. There are still many unresolved questions regarding the pathogenesis of this disease and especially the reasons underlying the extremely different clinical course, ranging from asymptomatic forms to severe manifestations, including the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS). SARS-CoV-2 showed phylogenetic similarities to both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses, and some of the clinical features are shared between COVID-19 and previously identified beta-coronavirus infections. Available evidence indicate that the so called "cytokine storm" an uncontrolled over-production of soluble markers of inflammation which, in turn, sustain an aberrant systemic inflammatory response, is a major responsible for the occurrence of ARDS. Chemokines are low molecular weight proteins with powerful chemoattractant activity which play a role in the immune cell recruitment during inflammation. This review will be aimed at providing an overview of the current knowledge on the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system in the cytokine storm related to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Basic and clinical evidences obtained from previous SARS and MERS epidemics and available data from COVID-19 will be taken into account.
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“T helper (Th)-1 cytokines, including Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, Interferon (IFN)-γ, Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α, CXCL10, and CCL2; and Th-2 cytokines, including IL-4, IL-10, and IL-1 receptor antagonist are all elevated in the serum of COVID-19 patients (Coperchini et al., 2020) in a “cytokine storm” typically associated with the illness.”
From Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up (2021) · cites this paper as Coperchini et al., 2020
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Roy, S., Sharma, B., Mazid, M. I., Akhand, M. R. N., Das, M., Marufatuzzahan, M., Chowdhury, T. A., Azim, K. F., & Hasan, M. (2021) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104451 · Cited by 14
The Immunopathobiology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
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Case series: Rare cases of thyroid storm in COVID‐19 patients
Milani, N., Najafpour, M., & Mohebbi, M. (2021) · Clinical Case Reports · doi:10.1002/ccr3.4772 · Cited by 14
Could IL-6 predict the clinical severity of COVID-19?
Aykal, G., Esen, H., Seyman, D., & ÇALIŞKAN, T. (2021) · Turkish Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1515/tjb-2021-0020 · Cited by 14
Cloer, C., Roudsari, L. C., Rochelle, L. K., Petrie, T. A., Welch, M., Charest, J. L., Tan, K., Li, F., Petersen, T. H., Ilagan, R. M., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259732 · Cited by 14
Anticipated pharmacological role of Aviptadil on COVID-19
Mukherjee, T., Behl, T., Sharma, S., Sehgal, A., Singh, S., Sharma, N., Mathew, B., Kaur, J., Kaur, R., Das, M., et al. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-17824-5 · Cited by 14
Ashraf, A., Liaquat, A., Shabbir, S., Bokhari, S. A., Tariq, Z., Furrukh, Z., Raja, A. A., & Khan, M. J. (2022) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2022-141573 · Cited by 14
N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may affect the course of COVID-19
Lampová, B., Doskočil, I., Kouřimská, L., & Kopeć, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.957518 · Cited by 15
Immunogenetic Predisposition to SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Lehmann, C., Loeffler‐Wirth, H., Balz, V., Enczmann, J., Landgraf, R., Lakowa, N., Gruenewald, T., Fischer, J., & Doxiadis, I. I. N. (2022) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12010037 · Cited by 14
Hamdorf, M., Imhof, T., Bailey-Elkin, B. A., Betz, J., Theobald, S. J., Simonis, A., Cristanziano, V. D., Gieselmann, L., Dewald, F., Lehmann, C., et al. (2023) · Journal of Molecular Cell Biology · doi:10.1093/jmcb/mjad062 · Cited by 16
Neurons undergo IFNγ-driven persistent epigenetic shifts and synaptopathy in encephalitis
Shammas, G., Piccinno, M., Égervári, K., Lemeille, S., Mariotte, A., Maltese, F., Panzeri, A., Wagner, I., Fonta, N., Furlan, T., et al. (2025) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2025.11.006 · Cited by 13
Diagnostic approaches and potential therapeutic options for coronavirus disease 2019
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Wu, K. C. H., He, Q., Bennett, A. N., Li, J., & Chan, K. H. K. (2022) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.1063519 · Cited by 13
Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
Capra, D., DosSantos, M. F. H., Sanz, C. K., Filha, L. G. A., Nunes, P. C. G., Heringer, M., Ximenes-da-Silva, A., Pessoa, L. S., Coelho‐Aguiar, J. D. M., da Fonseca, A. C. C., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1162554 · Cited by 15
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Identification of novel clusters of co-expressing cytokines in a diagnostic cytokine multiplex test
Polley, D., Latham, P., Choi, M. Y., Buhler, K. A., Fritzler, M. J., & Fritzler, M. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1223817 · Cited by 13
Khalili, S., Moradi, O., Kharazmi, A. B., Raoufi, M., Sistanizad, M., & Shariat, M. (2020) · Canadian Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2020.10.014 · Cited by 13
Intricate interplay between Covid‐19 and cardiovascular diseases
Keri, V. C., Hooda, A., Kodan, P., Brunda, R. L., Jorwal, P., & Wig, N. (2020) · Reviews in Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/rmv.2188 · Cited by 13
COVID-19 co-infection mathematical model as guided through signaling structural framework
Soni, B., & Singh, S. (2021) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2021.03.028 · Cited by 13
Simões, J. L. B., de Araújo, J. B., & Bagatini, M. D. (2021) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-021-02464-0 · Cited by 14
Nervous system manifestations related to COVID-19 and their possible mechanisms
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Akácsos-Szász, O.-Z., Pál, S., Nyulas, K.-I., Nemes-Nagy, E., Fárr, A.-M., Dénes, L., Szilveszter, M., Bán, E.-G., Tilinca, M. C., & Simon-Szabó, Z. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24054319 · Cited by 13
HDL-Related Parameters and COVID-19 Mortality: The Importance of HDL Function
Stadler, J. T., Habisch, H., Prüller, F., Mangge, H., Bärnthaler, T., Kargl, J., Pammer, A., Holzer, M., Meissl, S., Rani, A., et al. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12112009 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Coperchini, F., Chiovato, L., Croce, L., Magri, F., & Rotondi, M.
- Affiliations
- Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri (IT)
- University of Pavia (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Rotondi, Mario
- Venue
- Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-06
- Volume
- 53
- Pages
- 25-32
- ISSN
- 1359-6101 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7211650
- OpenAlex
- W3021577619
- Cited by
- 1,288
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 158 · 2022: 274 · 2021: 443 · 2020: 257
- FWCI
- 13.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Chemokine receptors and signaling
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Keywords
- cytokine storm, COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2, chemokines, chemokine receptors, acute respiratory distress syndrome, systemic inflammation, immune cell recruitment, SARS, MERS, betacoronaviruses, disease severity
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, Cytokine Release Syndrome, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, Coronavirus Infections, Chemokines, Receptors, Chemokine, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Pandemics
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