The use of Latin-square designs in educational and psychological research

Richardson, John T.E.

doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.003

Cited by 104Optimal Experimental Design MethodsEducational Research and MethodsPsychology Research and Bibliometrics

The use of Latin-square designs in educational and psychological research

Richardson, John T.E.·2018·Educational Research Review

DOI 10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.003

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The study employed a within-subjects field experiment with a Latin square design to reduce order effects.
“we employ a withinsubjects field experiment designed with a Latin square arrangement (to mitigate order effects) [59].”
From Shaping Human-AI Collaboration: Varied Scaffolding Levels in Co-writing with Language Models (2024) · cites this paper as [59]

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Background
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Method
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“To control for possible order effects, a Latin Square was created, such that each condition and each set of directives occurred once in each column and once in each row (Richardson, 2018), which resulted in six possible orders (see Figure S1, Supplementary materials).”
Method
Optimizing sound alerts for traveler information systems: Insights from a driving simulator and eye tracking study
Haroon, S. M., Smith, E., & Ryan, A. (2025) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2025.07.022 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Dynamic Changes of Latency Perception Threshold in Virtual Reality: Behavioral and EEG Evidence
Yang, S., Yue, K., Gao, H., Guo, M. L., Liu, Y., Zhang, D., & Liu, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2025.3596919 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“To mitigate potential order effects between the different strategies [43], we used a counterbalanced Latin Square design.”
Decoding sustainability: The effect of eco-labels and textual cues on consumers' spontaneous recall and interpretation of environmental claims
Buvár, Á., Berezvai, Z., & Dúll, A. (2026) · Sustainable Production and Consumption · doi:10.1016/j.spc.2026.01.008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Assessing the benefits of virtual speaker lateralization for binaural speech intelligibility over the Internet
Orduña-Bustamante, F., Padilla-Ortíz, A. L., & Mena, C. D. H. (2022) · Applied Acoustics · doi:10.1016/j.apacoust.2022.109146 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Impact of School Infrastructure on Academic Performance in Cameroon: Empirical Evidence From Cameroon
Njong, A. M., Ndamsa, D. T., Paul, A., & Nguena, C. (2025) · Innovation economics frontiers · doi:10.36923/iefrontiers.v28i1.285 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Who introduced Western mathematicians to Latin squares?
Richardson, J. T. E. (2019) · British Journal for the History of Mathematics · doi:10.1080/26375451.2019.1587998 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Figures 1 and 2 and some of the text of the present paper has been taken from the article cited as Richardson (2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Peran Identitas Keagamaan terhadap Perilaku Menyumbang pada Mahasiswa
Anto, A. H. F. (2022) · Psikoborneo Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi · doi:10.30872/psikoborneo.v10i1.7446 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The effects of referential gaze in spoken language comprehension: Human speaker vs. virtual agent listener gaze
Nunnemann, E. M., Kreysa, H., & Knoeferle, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2023.1029157 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Randomization of the ﬁnal lists was done using a Latin Square design (see Richardson, 2018).”
Method
Retracted on January 14, 2026: Embedding Thinking Strategies within a Tangible Tree to Orchestrate Small Group Brainstorming
Melniczuk, A., Kang, N. G., & Lawson, S. W. (2024) · International Conference on Tangible, Embedded, and Embodied Interaction (TEI) · doi:10.1145/3623509.3633361 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“We used the Latin square method [52] to reduce the effects of different sequences on brainstorming methods and topics.”
Method
Retracted
A Study on Automotive HMI Design Evaluation Method Based on Usability Test Metrics and XGBoost Algorithm
Niu, X., & Tang, T. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60480-5_14 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bioindicators of Attention Detection in Online Learning Environments
Hassan, J., Berdejo, J., Kurati, S., Dinh, A., Garcia, A., Shoemaker, K., & Shastri, D. J. (2024) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61953-3_9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effects of background music tempo and mode on reading comprehension: the mediating role of emotions
Ba, S., & Hu, X. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09728-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Different audio stimuli and reading materials were arranged in a Graeco-Latin Square design, to counterbalance their combinations and orders of presence (Richardson, 2018 ).”
Emotional Design for Virtual Reality Games: The Effect of Object Luminosity, Background Lighting, and Learner Action
Shao, Y., Hang, Y., Jiao, X., Homer, B. D., & Plass, J. L. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-10518-9_33 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
An eye-tracking study of the impact of item presentation and item format on cognitive processing in L2 listening assessment
Liu, T., & Aryadoust, V. (2026) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263126101648 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The Graeco-Latin square design was used to control three blocking factors (Richardson, 2018): participants, orderoftestlets, and the talk(input and testitems).”
On the Common Pitfalls of Designing and Communicating Within-Subjects Experiments in HCI
Bielicke, L., Berger, E. D., Chlipala, A. J., & Jun, E. (2026) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3772363.3799010 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“However, because each condition never precedes itself in a sequence, separat-ing the lingering effects of a previous condition from the effects of the current condition on participant outcomes remains challenging [14].”
Do Language Models Help or Harm? The Role of LLM-Generated Explanations in Human-AI Image Classification Tasks
Naiseh, M., Zieni, B., Natali, C., & Bouchachia, H. (2026) · IEEE Conference on Artificial Intelligence (CAI) · doi:10.1109/cai68641.2026.11536442 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Narrative explanations were generated using GPT-4o with a consistent zero-shot prompt template [22].”
Bridging Code and Graphic: A Cross-Mode Framework for Large-Scale Network Scenario Construction
Liu, T., Liu, Z., Hu, N., Liu, J., Fang, B., & Liao, Q. (2026) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering in Practice (ICSE-SEIP) · doi:10.1145/3786583.3786894 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The task order was balanced using a Latin Square design [30] to control for learning and order effects.”
Neural prediction of situation awareness changes in VR-based construction safety training using a contrastive learning EEG-transformer framework
Xiong, Z., Ding, Z., & Liao, L. (2026) · Automation in Construction · doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2026.107137 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Information Technology and Teaching Strategies in Distance Learning to Improve the Learning Effect of K-12 Students
Jin, Z., Li, Y., & Lin, C. (2022) · International Conference on Digital Technology in Education (ICDTE) · doi:10.1145/3568739.3568771 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“students weariness, anxiety, escape, setbacks, such as psychological [42], the maximum extent, helps students in distance learning”
Background
Immersive remote telerobotics: foveated unicasting and remote visualization for intuitive interaction
Tefera, Y. T., Kim, Y., Anastasi, S., Fiorini, P., Caldwell, D. G., & Deshpande, N. (2024) · Robotica · doi:10.1017/s0263574724001784 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…[58] with the LIV dataset, subjects were ﬁrst presented with the FREF condition, followed by a 3-second pause, and one of the altered conditions (F0-F3) following immediately after, the presentation of the altered conditions was carefully changed using the Latin Squares design approach [59].”
Simultaneously probabilistic and deterministic approach (SPADA) for the materials design: methodology and experimental validation
Yermekova, Z., & Mironenko, A. (2019) · Journal of Materials Science · doi:10.1007/s10853-019-03815-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Improving Brain Memory through Gaming Using Hand Clenching and Spreading
Liu, Y., Abdullah, F., Paliyawan, P., Thawonmas, R., & Harada, T. (2019) · Motion in Games · doi:10.1145/3359566.3364689 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Each participant was arranged to play the game with a keyboard, a Kinect (hand raising), and our proposed sys-tem (hand clenching and spreading), and the order is based on the Latin Square method 4 , a method for participant grouping widely used in academic research[Richardson 2018].”
Method
47‐4: Color Acceptability Threshold for Mixed Display Technology Automotive Cockpit
Biswas, P. R., Dumortier, D., Drezet, H., & Avenel, M.-L. (2022) · SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers · doi:10.1002/sdtp.15560 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effect of Educational Protocol on Knowledge, Practice and Quality of life for Two Different Age Groups of Colostomy Patients: "Comparative Study"
Mohamed, M., Ahmed, G. H., Abdelall, H., Fahmy, H., Abd-Elfatah, S., & Abd-Elaziz, S. (2022) · Assiut Scientific Nursing Journal · doi:10.21608/asnj.2022.128906.1348 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…made over time for one group of participants as the researcher can use pretest-posttest as test the participants prior to the experimental manipulation by perform the experimental manipulation, then test the participants after the manipulation to evaluate what changes occurred ( Richardson, 2018).”
MethodInfluential
Smart sensing and mobility analysis for improved transportation efficiency
Cao, C. (2019) · doi:10.32657/10220/49682
Sustainability as a Multi-criteria Concept
Dı́az-Balteiro, L., González‐Pachón, J., & Romero, C. (2020) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-03943-546-3
Instrument Structures
Leppink, J. (2020) · Springer texts in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43082-5_9
Human-centered Evaluation of 3D Radial Layouts for Centrality Visualization
Kobina, P., Duval, T., Brisson, L., & David, A. (2022) · Computer Science Research Notes · doi:10.24132/csrn.3201.9
“We then built 24 configurations with the various surfaces so that each surface and graph is performed at least once as first, using something similar to the concept of the Latin square [Freeman79, Richardson18].”
Method
Quantity Processing in Object Counting Task Based on Event-Related Potentials
Sun, C., Cui, Y., Yan, Y., Shang, Y., & Chen, Z. (2023) · Clinical Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.11648/j.cnn.20230701.12
“At the same time, the experiment used a Latin square design; grouping singular and plural pictures of 10 subjects was exactly the opposite of the other 10 subjects [25].”
Method
Kaitan Ruang Vektor Matriks V_n dan C_n
Putri, I. S., Anindya, A. R., & Sukaesih, E. (2023) · Kubik Jurnal Publikasi Ilmiah Matematika · doi:10.15575/kubik.v8i2.30415
Chinese Version of the Short Geneva Emotional Music Scale: Cross-cultural Adaptation and Psychological Measurement
Chen, Y., Luo, T., & Wang, Y. (2024) · Advances in Social Development and Education Research · doi:10.61935/asder.2.1.2024.p170
Visual instructions for writing Chinese for beginners
Tian, T., Lonsdale, M. D. S., & Cheung, V. (2024) · Information Design Journal · doi:10.1075/idj.21009.tia
Do a health education booklet and telephone follow-up regarding the use of long-term oxygen therapy influence patients' health-related outcomes?
Ahmed, G. H., & Labieb, M. M. (2024) · Port Said Scientific Journal of Nursing · doi:10.21608/pssjn.2024.290475.1303
Developing Theory of Mind in social domains: A cross‐sequential study of Chinese rural preschoolers
Zheng, Y., Xin, C., Tian, L., Shen, Y., & Liu, G. (2024) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12656
Designing Training Scenarios for Stressful Air Traffic Control Procedures
Finseth, T., & Lubold, N. (2024) · IEEE/AIAA Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC) · doi:10.1109/dasc62030.2024.10748677
“This may have been mitigated by using longer breaks between trials, or to have administered trials via a Latin square to counterbalance order effects in repeated-measures designs [27].”
The Combined Effect of Grammatical Proficiency and Machine Translation Assistance on Translation Accuracy: A Quantitative Study
Pan, Y., & Zheng, Z. (2024) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Future Education (AIFE) · doi:10.1145/3708394.3708419
“To achieve this, a Latin square design was employed to balance the sequencing of translation tasks (Richardson, 2018) [ 22 ] .”
LATIN SQUARE DESIGN: A METHODOLOGICAL INNOVATION IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FOR IMPROVED TEACHING AND LEARNING
Sule, A. S., Lantana, B., Nuhu, U. M., Nasir, U., & Amina, A. N. (2025) · FUDMA Journal of Sciences · doi:10.33003/fjs-2025-0905-3686
ReRAM/CMOS Array Integration and Characterization via Design of Experiments
Hossen, I., Borders, W. A., Madhavan, A., Joshi, S., Braganca, P. M., McClelland, J. J., Hoskins, B. D., & Adam, G. C. (2025) · Advanced Electronic Materials · doi:10.1002/aelm.202500203
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Augmented Reality in Digital Learning: A Comparative Study Across Modalities
Chen, Z., Lin, F., Chen, C., & Gian, D. T. B. (2025) · The Japanese Journal of Ergonomics · doi:10.5100/jje.61.2e07-01
Identifying effective timer and proctoring settings for online exam systems: Insights from an eye-tracking experiment based on the stimulus-organism-response model
Jiang, T., Tian, H., Xu, Y., & Long, H. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105436
Effect of Flipped Learning Approach on Academic Performance and Retention of Undergraduate Students in Trigonometry in Kebbi State Nigeria
Turaki, S. A., & Julius, E. (2025) · British Journal of Education · doi:10.37745/bje.2013/vol13n986100
How Cultural Values Predict Chinese Caregivers’ Perceptions of Shyness, Unsociability, and Social Avoidance
Liu, Z., & Zhang, L. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03230-9
Emotional Content in Robotic Dance: Evaluating Human-to-Robot Movement Mapping
Saviano, G., Villani, A., & Prattichizzo, D. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-2398-6_46
Predicting Student Attentiveness in Online Learning with Physiological and Motion-Based Data
Dagnoko, M., Kumar, A., Kurati, S., Dinh, A., Berdejo, J., Hassan, J., & Shastri, D. J. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-13174-4_24
Distance-Responsive Visual Guidance System in Augmented Reality
Choi, I., Jeong, H., & Shin, C. (2025) · Journal of Digital Contents Society · doi:10.9728/dcs.2025.26.12.3485
RAMC-Net: A region-guided attention and modality competitive query network for multimodal physiological workload evaluation under heat stress
Geng, J., Wang, S., Tang, Y., & Weng, W. (2026) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2026.117178
Synchronizing with Attentional Sampling: Modality-Specific Flicker Guidance for Gaze and Hand-Eye Interaction in VR
Yang, S., Yue, K., Gao, H., Guo, M., Jia, H., Zhu, Z., Zeng, F., & Liu, Y. (2026) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr67842.2026.00034
“To mitigate order effects, the presentation order of the two modality blocks was counterbalanced across participants using a Latin Square design [37].”
Modelling, Control and Performance Analysis of Cable-Driven Parallel Cobots
Métillon, M. (2023) · doi:10.70675/0fc64835zf90ez4167z9f48z21e0bdfa015d
Colorimetric analysis and appearance matching of displays in an automotive context
Biswas, P. R. (2023) · doi:10.70675/a09fcb08ze923z4e74za19czad2767c3fc4c
“I need to follow the numbers”—developing and validating a more comprehensive measure of spontaneous focusing on numerical order
harju, H., Belle, L. V., Dooren, W. V., McMullen, J. A., & Hoof, J. V. (2026) · Educational Studies in Mathematics · doi:10.1007/s10649-026-10502-8
“The SFONO tasks were randomized using a balanced Latin square design, which ensures that each element precedes another exactly once, and allows to better control for potential order effects (Richardson, 2018).”
Flow in instrumental improvisation: Task constraints and their connection to students’ personality, musical skills, and self-regulation
Stijnen, J., Verneert, F., Nijs, L., & Petegem, P. V. (2026) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356261426478
Nonlinear and intensity-dependent enhancement of sweetness perception as a function of redness: Behavioral and EEG evidence for visual–gustatory cross-modal integration
Sun, Y., Wang, Y., (7082), Y. L., Xia, F., Qian, T., & Wei, Y. (2026) · Food Chemistry X · doi:10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104075
“A Williams Latin Square design was used to counterbalance the presentation order of the 12 solutions, and sweetness levels were fully randomized within each block to eliminate order and fatigue effects (Richardson, 2018).”
Effects of Interactive Machine Translation on Post-Editors’ Cognitive Resource Distribution: Evidence from Eye-Tracking, Key-Logging, and Retrospective Interviews
Wei, Y., Amirdabbaghian, A., & Wahid, R. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2682943
Effects of immersion level and sound type on user experience in mixed reality interactive exhibitions: Evidence from psychophysiology
Hu, W., Qiao, Z., Huang, J., Lu, J., Liu, Y., & Song, F. (2026) · Displays · doi:10.1016/j.displa.2026.103593
Exploring Question Order Effects in Multiple-Choice Assessments: Evidence from Undergraduate Education Courses
Alyasin, A., Hajj, M. E., Harb, H., & Nasser, R. N. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16071009
Investigating Attention Dynamics in Online Learning Through Multitasking Scenarios
Dagnoko, M., Amsler, A., Raval, H., Kumar, A. A., & Shastri, D. J. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-30781-1_4
Simulated changes in systematic review screening sensitivity and specificity associated with varying co-screening proportions
Prentice, S., Mundy, B., Prentice, C. L. S., Dorstyn, D., Massy‐Westropp, N., Weerasekara, I., Bentley, M., Fisher, K. E., Kharwadkar, S., & Tran, T. (2026) · JBI Evidence Synthesis · doi:10.11124/jbies-25-00309
Dose-related effects of acute cycling on executive function in children with autism spectrum disorder: a within-subject repeated-measures study
Shi, Y., Gao, F., Liu, Z., Cai, K., Sun, Z., Xu, Y., Zou, L., & Chen, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902127
“The order of the four exercise sessions was counterbalanced using a Latin square design to minimize practice and order effects across exercise doses (Bradley, 1958; Lewis, 1989; Richardson, 2018).”
Doubt’s Dual Triggers: A Pilot Experimental Study on Epistemic Beliefs Using a Climate-Related Controversy
Furdui, R., & Gavreliuc, A. (2026) · Romanian Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.2478/rjap-2026-0009
“To eliminate the possible influences of the text order of presentation, as a counterbalancing procedure for the two consistent conditions, the Latin square technique was used (Richardson, 2018).”
Gamification and Social Interaction in Music-Synchronized Group Cycling with Heart-Rate- and Cadence-Based Feedback
Keppel, J., Heger, R., Eustergerling, R., Knubel, M., Liebers, J., Matviienko, A., & Schneegaß, S. (2026) · doi:10.1145/3838843.3838847

Authors: Richardson, J. T. E.
Affiliations: The Open University (GB)
Corresponding author: Richardson, John T.E.
ORCID: Richardson, John T.E.
Venue: Educational Research Review
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2018-06
Volume: 24
Pages: 84-97
ISSN: 1747-938X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.003
OpenAlex: W2791237780
Cited by: 104
References: 65
Citations by year: 2026: 24 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 1
FWCI: 2.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: erratum (2021-02-01)
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Educational Research Review (publishedVersion)
Open Research Online (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Optimal Experimental Design Methods
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Research and Methods
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
Keywords: Latin square design, experimental design, randomization, data analysis, educational research, psychology research, factorial design

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