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The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection
Open accessAbstract
Angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptors mediate the entry into the cell of three strains of coronavirus: SARS-CoV, NL63 and SARS-CoV-2. ACE2 receptors are ubiquitous and widely expressed in the heart, vessels, gut, lung (particularly in type 2 pneumocytes and macrophages), kidney, testis and brain. ACE2 is mostly bound to cell membranes and only scarcely present in the circulation in a soluble form. An important salutary function of membrane-bound and soluble ACE2 is the degradation of angiotensin II to angiotensin 1-7. Consequently, ACE2 receptors limit several detrimental effects resulting from binding of angiotensin II to AT1 receptors, which include vasoconstriction, enhanced inflammation and thrombosis. The increased generation of angiotensin 1-7 also triggers counter-regulatory protective effects through binding to G-protein coupled Mas receptors. Unfortunately, the entry of SARS-CoV2 into the cells through membrane fusion markedly down-regulates ACE2 receptors, with loss of the catalytic effect of these receptors at the external site of the membrane. Increased pulmonary inflammation and coagulation have been reported as unwanted effects of enhanced and unopposed angiotensin II effects via the ACE→Angiotensin II→AT1 receptor axis. Clinical reports of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 show that several features associated with infection and severity of the disease (i.e., older age, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease) share a variable degree of ACE2 deficiency. We suggest that ACE2 down-regulation induced by viral invasion may be especially detrimental in people with baseline ACE2 deficiency associated with the above conditions. The additional ACE2 deficiency after viral invasion might amplify the dysregulation between the 'adverse' ACE→Angiotensin II→AT1 receptor axis and the 'protective' ACE2→Angiotensin 1-7→Mas receptor axis. In the lungs, such dysregulation would favor the progression of inflammatory and thrombotic processes triggered by local angiotensin II hyperactivity unopposed by angiotensin 1-7. In this setting, recombinant ACE2, angiotensin 1-7 and angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers could be promising therapeutic approaches in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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“Of note, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 cell entry results in downregulation of ACE2 (Verdecchia et al., 2020)”
From Viral Infections, the Microbiome, and Probiotics (2021) · cites this paper as Verdecchia et al., 2020
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InfluentialCOVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression
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“The present review discusses the role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors which are not only the door through which the virus enters into cells, [2,3] but also the conductor of several pathophysiological reactions associated with the clinical features of the disease, with potential therapeutic implicat…”
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N-Acetylcysteine in the Treatment of Acute Lung Injury: Perspectives and Limitations
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Mesenchymal stromal cells to fight SARS-CoV-2: Taking advantage of a pleiotropic therapy
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Bielka, W., Przezak, A., & Pawlik, A. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22147605 · Cited by 23
“Angiotensin II is made by angiotensin-converting enzyme, ACE, from angiotensin I and has vasoconstrictory and pro-thrombotic properties [21].”
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“The binding and fusion of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 to cells induce a reduction in bioavailability of the ACE2 receptor, which is internalized with the virus (Figure 3; Kuba et al., 2005; Verdecchia et al., 2020).”
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Megiorni, F., Pontecorvi, P., Gerini, G., Anastasiadou, E., Marchese, C., & Ceccarelli, S. (2021) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom12010021 · Cited by 22
Is There a Role for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 on the Female Reproductive System?
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Venous Thromboembolism in Sepsis: From Bench to Bedside
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“In COVID‐19, the process seems to start from the downregulation of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE‐2) activity due to its use by SARS‐CoV‐2 to enter human cells [109].”
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Daoust, L., Pilon, G., & Marette, A. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmab031 · Cited by 21
“(26), a pre-existing ACE2 deficiency in type 2 diabetic (T2D) and/or elderly people could promote a more severe form of the disease.”
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Ho, G. J., Ali, A., Takamatsu, Y., Wada, R., Masliah, E., & Hashimoto, M. (2021) · Drug Discovery Today · doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2021.03.013 · Cited by 24
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“The mACE2 deficiency is considered to be linked to cardiovascular disease and diabetes, suggesting that mACE2 deficiency may increase the risk of developing severe COVID-19 (Oudit and Pfeffer, 2020; Verdecchia et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCOVID-19 Autopsies: A Case Series from Poland
Chmielik, E., Jazowiecka-Rakus, J., Dyduch, G., Nasierowska-Guttmejer, A. M., Michałowski, Ł., Sochanik, A., & Ulatowska-Białas, M. (2020) · Pathobiology · doi:10.1159/000512768 · Cited by 21
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“differences in angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) expression in the respiratory tract [82].”
BackgroundDoes Angiotensin II Peak in Response to SARS-CoV-2?
Xavier, L. L., Neves, P. F. R., Paz, L. V., Neves, L. T., Bagatini, P. B., Timmers, L. F. S. M., Rasia‐Filho, A. A., Mestriner, R. G., & Wieck, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.577875 · Cited by 21
“ACE2,whichwas initially described as an ACE homologous, sharing 40% sequence similarity with ACE (12), counteracts the effects of ANG II by converting ANG I into Angiotensin 1-9 (ANG 1-9), and ANG II into Angiotensin 1-7 (ANG 1-7) (13).”
BackgroundInfluentialPattern Recognition Proteins: First Line of Defense Against Coronaviruses
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Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 and Future Epidemics
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Current status of the COVID‐19 and male reproduction: A review of the literature
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Genetic and epigenetic control of ACE2 expression and its possible role in COVID ‐19
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“COVID-19, since Angiotensin II would accumulate, and Angiotensin 1-7 levels would be decreased.(106) A potentially beneficial approach to rescue ACE2 loss in infected patients would be the treatment with”
BackgroundAgeing, ACE2 deficiency and bad outcome in COVID-19
Angeli, F., Reboldi, G., & Verdecchia, P. (2021) · Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (CCLM) · doi:10.1515/cclm-2021-0658 · Cited by 21
“Second, they discussed the hypothesis that androgen sensitivity (which shows significant variations with gender and age) may concur to the development of severe forms of SARS-CoV-2 infection [3].”
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“These indirect agents might act as potential drugs against SARS-CoV-2 entry, such as baricitinib, included in the endocytosis of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and targeting the Janus kinase [14].”
InfluentialIs the Host Viral Response and the Immunogenicity of Vaccines Altered in Pregnancy?
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“The binding of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein to ACE-2 receptors initiates the fusion of the viral membrane (composed of a lipid bilayer and transmembranous proteins) with the host alveolar cell membrane and facilitates the passage of the viral RNA which then hijacks the host mechanisms of protein synthesis for repl…”
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“degradation of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor and culprit of endothelial damage and myocardial dysfunction.(32) The resulting increased”
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“These metabolic conditions are linked to decreased ACE2 levels and functions in different tissues [135] (reviewed in [18]).”
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“internalization of membrane-bound ACE2, which occurs as SARS-CoV-2 binds to the host cell membrane, leads to the concurrent loss of ACE2s catalytic activity [253].”
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“affection according to the immunological state of the patients [1,7].”
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“The complexity of the question is further increased because several studies have shown that viral binding reduces the ACE2 levels at the cell surface [18,19], which may shift the RAS balance toward inflammation, fibrosis, and progression of disease severity.”
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Salem, F. E., Li, X. Z., Hindi, J., Casablanca, N. N. M., Zhong, F., Jamal, S. M. E., Rasheed, M. R. H. A., Li, L., Lee, K., Chan, L., et al. (2021) · Journal of Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s40620-021-01173-0 · Cited by 18
COVID-19, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and IodidePreprint
Turkia, M. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3604987 · Cited by 19
Vitamin D and COVID-19: Lessons from Spaceflight Analogs
Zwart, S. R., & Smith, S. M. (2020) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxaa233 · Cited by 18
“1,25(OH)2D can increase ACE2 expression and attenuate the angiotensin II– induced inflammatory response that includes generation of reactive oxygen species and vasoconstriction (22), which is the pathway that is stimulated during SARS-CoV-2 infection (7).”
BackgroundSARS-CoV-2 Infection: Modulator of Pulmonary Embolism Paradigm
Akhter, M. S., Hamali, H. A., Mobarki, A. A., Rashid, H., Oldenburg, J., & Biswas, A. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10051064 · Cited by 18
“The degradation promotes proinflammatory and prothrombotic processes in the lung triggered by local angiotensin II (Ang II) hyperactivity [70].”
BackgroundCOVID-19: Mechanistic Model of the African Paradox Supports the Central Role of the NF-κB Pathway
Kircheis, R., Schuster, M., & Planz, O. (2021) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v13091887 · Cited by 18
“The interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with the ACE-2 receptor may also inhibit the lung-protective effect of the enzyme [19,20].”
BackgroundAngeli, F., Verdecchia, P., Balestrino, A., Bruschi, C., Ceriana, P., Chiovato, L., Vecchia, L. A. D., Fanfulla, F., Rovere, M. T. L., Perego, F., et al. (2022) · Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease · doi:10.3390/jcdd9010015 · Cited by 18
The role of kidney injury biomarkers in COVID-19
Su, L., Zhang, J., & Peng, Z. (2022) · Renal Failure · doi:10.1080/0886022x.2022.2107544 · Cited by 18
“SARS-CoV-2 entry, on the other hand, drastically downregulates the expression of ACE2, thereby inhibiting its protective effect, which might result in subsequent AKI triggering [20,22].”
BackgroundAngeli, F., Zappa, M., Reboldi, G., Gentile, G., Trapasso, M., Spanevello, A., & Verdecchia, P. (2022) · European Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2022.12.004 · Cited by 18
“(mediated by S proteins) with ACE2 receptors exerts a pivotal role in the development of severe disease [47,53,106,107].”
Elnagdy, M. H., Magdy, A., Eldars, W., Elgamal, M., El-Nagdy, A. H., Salem, O., Elmowafy, M. M., Elborsh, O. A., Elshafey, A., Kesba, M. M., et al. (2024) · Virology Journal · doi:10.1186/s12985-024-02298-x · Cited by 18
“These co-morbidities were known to be linked to ACE2 deficiency [33, 34], which is possibly an effect of glycosylation in diabetes mellitus [35] and maybe a causative factor for hypertension [36].”
BackgroundLopachev, A. V., Kazanskaya, R. B., Khutorova, A. V., & Федорова, Т. Н. (2020) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173457 · Cited by 20
“At the same time, activation of the endothelium leads to the so-called “shedding” of ACE1 and a subsequent temporary sharp increase in concentration of angiotensin II, thus forming a positive feedback loop which further promotes local inflammation and coagulation (Verdecchia et al., 2020).”
Gando, S., & Wada, T. (2021) · Shock · doi:10.1097/shk.0000000000001825 · Cited by 17
“SARS-CoV-2 invades cells using the spike glycoprotein that binds to the ACE2, which acts as an entry receptor, resulting in the downregulation and inactivation of ACE2 and elevation of angiotensin II (Ang II) levels (19, 20).”
BackgroundMild-to-Moderate COVID-19 Convalescents May Present Pro-Longed Endothelium Injury
Kozłowski, P., Śmiarowski, M., Przyborska, W., Zemlik, K., Małecka‐Giełdowska, M., Leszczyńska, A., Garley, M., & Ciepiela, O. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11216461 · Cited by 18
“Due to massive use under these conditions, endothelial ACE2 expression is depleted, which profoundly distorts the balance in the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) [15].”
BackgroundYamamoto, M., Kase, M., Sano, H., Kamijima, R., & Sano, S. (2022) · Journal of Cutaneous Immunology and Allergy · doi:10.1002/cia2.12278 · Cited by 17
A Review: Highlighting the Links between Epigenetics, COVID-19 Infection, and Vitamin D
Foolchand, A., Mazaleni, S., Ghazi, T., & Chuturgoon, A. A. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232012292 · Cited by 18
“Upon infection and SARS-CoV-2 attachment to the cell surface, the spike protein is primed by TMPRSS2, allowing S1/S2 cleavage and fusion of the viral and cellular membranes at the S2 site [133,134].”
BackgroundCOVID-19: Underpinning Research for Detection, Therapeutics, and Vaccines Development
Aljabali, A. A. A., Bakshi, H. A., Satija, S., Metha, M., Prasher, P., Ennab, R. M., Chellappan, D. K., Gupta, G., Negi, P., Goyal, R., et al. (2020) · Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology · doi:10.2174/2211738508999200817163335 · Cited by 17
John, A. A., Ali, K., Marsh, H. D., & Reddy, P. H. (2021) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2021.101406 · Cited by 18
Bastolla, U. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences · doi:10.3389/fmolb.2021.706122 · Cited by 20
“Several papers proposed that the downregulation of ACE2 is a key factor for the severity of CoViD19 and suggested that ACE-I and ARB that limit the effects of Ang1-8 may be beneficial for CoViD-19 patients (Annweiler et al., 2020; Ciaglia et al., 2020; Gurwitz, 2020; Offringa et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020; Verdecchia…”
BackgroundElectrocardiographic features of patients with COVID-19: One year of unexpected manifestations
Angeli, F., Reboldi, G., Spanevello, A., Ponti, R. D., Visca, D., Marazzato, J., Zappa, M., Trapasso, M., Masnaghetti, S., Fabbri, L. M., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2021.10.006 · Cited by 17
Xu, Y.-M., Inácio, M. C., Liu, M. X., & Gunatilaka, A. A. L. (2022) · Current Research in Chemical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.crchbi.2022.100023 · Cited by 17
Balasubramanian, N., James, T. D., Selvakumar, G. P., Reinhardt, J., & Marcinkiewcz, C. A. (2022) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.15000 · Cited by 17
COVID-19 and cardiovascular disease: a review of current knowledge
Pal, A., Ahirwar, A. K., Sakarde, A., Asia, P., Gopal, N., Alam, S., Kaim, K., Ahirwar, P., & Sorte, S. R. (2021) · Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1515/hmbci-2020-0052 · Cited by 16
“While the role of ACE2 in converting ATII to AT 1–7 and preventing ATII induced myocardial hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis is one side of the coin, its detrimental role of latching the spike protein of SARS-CoV2 onto its receptor cannot be ignored.”
BackgroundInfluentialRahmawati, P. L., Tini, K., Susilawathi, N. M., Wijayanti, I. A. S., & Samatra, D. P. G. P. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.3988/jcn.2021.17.2.155 · Cited by 17
Male bias in ACE2 basic science research: missed opportunity for discovery in the time of COVID-19
Stanić, B. M., Maddox, S., de Souza, A. M. A., Wu, X., Mehranfard, D., Ji, H., Speth, R. C., & Sandberg, K. L. (2021) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00356.2020 · Cited by 15
The renin-angiotensin system in central nervous system tumors and degenerative diseases
Haron, S., Kilmister, E. J., Davis, P. F., Stylli, S. S., Mantamadiotis, T., Kaye, A. H., Hall, S. R., Tan, S. T., & Wickremesekera, A. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark · doi:10.52586/4972 · Cited by 16
“AT1R blockers (ARBs) have been touted to be of therapeutic value in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection [42], and potentially aid in reducing delirium due to neuroinflammation in advanced cases that require intensive care [43].”
BackgroundDelshad, M., Sanaei, M., Pourbagheri‐Sigaroodi, A., & Bashash, D. (2022) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109128 · Cited by 18
SARS-CoV-2 Variants, Current Vaccines and Therapeutic Implications for COVID-19
Liang, H., Wu, Y., Yau, V., Yin, H.-X., Lowe, S., Bentley, R., Ahmed, M. A., Zhao, W., & Sun, C. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10091538 · Cited by 16
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Expression and Severity of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Alabsi, S. M., Dhole, A., Hozayen, S. M., & Chapman, S. A. (2023) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11030612 · Cited by 16
“These conditions, as well as old age, have been associated with variable rates of ACE2 deficiency, providing yet another mechanism for predisposition to severe COVID-19 infection [47].”
BackgroundExcess iron aggravates the severity of COVID-19 infection
Chaubey, G. K., Dilawari, R., Modanwal, R., Talukdar, S., Dhiman, A., Raje, C. I., & Raje, M. (2023) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.08.011 · Cited by 16
Angeli, F., Zappa, M., & Verdecchia, P. (2023) · European Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2023.10.016 · Cited by 16
Transcriptional regulation of SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 by SP1
Han, H., Luo, R., Long, X., Wang, Y., Zhu, Q., Tang, X., Zhu, R., Ma, Y., Zheng, Y., & Zou, C. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.85985 · Cited by 16
“ACE2 is widely expressed in different human tissues, including the lungs, small intestine, kidneys, liver, testes, heart, and brain ( Dong et al., 2020 ; Verdecchia et al., 2020 ).”
BackgroundShukla, A. K., Awasthi, K., Usman, K., & Banerjee, M. (2024) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v15.i4.606 · Cited by 17
Manolis, A. S., Manolis, T. A., Manolis, A. S., & Melita, H. (2020) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0000000000000894 · Cited by 16
Singh, A. K., & Bajpai, M. K. (2020) · Computer Modeling in Engineering & Sciences · doi:10.32604/cmes.2020.012503 · Cited by 16
García‐Escobar, A., Jiménez‐Valero, S., Galeote, G., y, A. J.-R., García‐Rodríguez, J., & Moreno, R. (2021) · Heart Failure Reviews · doi:10.1007/s10741-020-10066-6 · Cited by 16
Chen, I., Lin, J., Liu, Y., Chai, C., Yeh, J., Hsu, J., Wu, B., & Dai, Z. (2021) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.619133 · Cited by 15
Perspectives and Challenges in the Fight Against COVID-19: The Role of Genetic Variability
Guilger‐Casagrande, M., de Barros, C. T., Antunes, V. A. N., de Araújo, D. R., & de Lima, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.598875 · Cited by 17
“These factors result in pulmonary fibrosis and inefficient gas exchange (Verdecchia et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMishra, A., Choudhary, M., Das, T. R., Saren, P., Bhattacherjee, P., Thakur, N., Tripathi, S. K., Upadhaya, S., Kim, H., Murugan, N. A., et al. (2021) · Journal of the Indian Chemical Society · doi:10.1016/j.jics.2021.100164 · Cited by 16
“, older age, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease) share a variable level of ACE2 deficiency, thus the pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection reported [14].”
Verschelden, G., Noeparast, M., Noparast, M., Goossens, M. C., Lauwers, M., COTTON, F. J., Michel, C., Goyvaerts, C., & Hites, M. (2021) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108163 · Cited by 16
“As such, SARS-CoV-2 infection leads to lung-damaging complications in a subset of patients, at least partly via targeting the AT2 cells, disrupting the RAS feedback loop, and unleashing Angiotensin II effects [9,10].”
Pharmacotherapy for hypertensive urgency and emergency in COVID-19 patients
Angeli, F., Verdecchia, P., & Reboldi, G. (2021) · Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1080/14656566.2021.1990264 · Cited by 16
“role in patients with COVID-19 infection [30,31,70,71].”
BackgroundInternet of Health Things (IoHT) for COVID-19
Adetunji, C. O., Olaniyan, O. T., Adeyomoye, O., Dare, A., Adeniyi, M. J., Enoch, A., Ребезов, М. Б., Petukhova, E. P., & Shariati, M. A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79753-9_5 · Cited by 16
Effects of Statins on Renin–Angiotensin System
Kiaie, N., Gorabi, A. M., Reiner, Ž., Jamialahmadi, T., Ruscica, M., & Sahebkar, A. (2021) · Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease · doi:10.3390/jcdd8070080 · Cited by 17
“In the lungs, such dysregulation could favor the progression of inflammatory and thrombotic processes triggered by local angiotensin II hyperactivity unopposed by Ang (1-7) [115].”
BackgroundSrinivasan, M., Zunt, S. L., & Goldblatt, L. I. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.06.22.165035 · Cited by 16
Obesity and COVID-19: the ominous duet affecting the renin-angiotensin system
Livio, L. U. Z. I., Bucciarelli, L. G., FERRULLI, A., Terruzzi, I., & MASSARINI, S. (2021) · Minerva Endocrinology · doi:10.23736/s2724-6507.20.03402-1 · Cited by 15
Khodabakhsh, P., Taei, A. A., Mohseni, M., Zanjanbar, D. B., Khalili, H., Masoumi, K., Shirazi, A. H. A., & Dargahi, L. (2021) · Archives of Medical Research · doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2021.05.007 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Verdecchia, P., Cavallini, C., Spanevello, A., & Angeli, F.
- Affiliations
- University of Insubria (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Verdecchia, Paolo
- Venue
- European Journal of Internal Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-06
- Volume
- 76
- Pages
- 14-20
- ISSN
- 0953-6205 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7167588
- OpenAlex
- W3017331996
- Cited by
- 1,237
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 84 · 2023: 156 · 2022: 245 · 2021: 384 · 2020: 295
- FWCI
- 45.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- European Journal of Internal Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- IrInSubria (University of Insubria) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Renin-Angiotensin System Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- ACE2 receptor, COVID-19 pandemic, angiotensin II, angiotensin-(1-7), Mas receptor, angiotensin II type 1 receptor, lung inflammation, thrombosis, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, angiotensin receptor blockers, COVID-19 severity
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Angiotensins, Diabetes Mellitus, Heart Failure, Humans, Hypertension, Peptidyl-Dipeptidase A, Pneumonia, Viral, Receptors, Virus, Recombinant Proteins, Risk Factors, Coronavirus Infections, Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Blockers, Drug Discovery, Pandemics
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