Subduction and atmospheric escape of Earth's seawater constrained by hydrogen isotopes
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Abstract The hydrogen isotopic (D/H) ratio reflects the global cycling and evolution of water on Earth as it fractionates through planetary processes. We model the water cycle taking seafloor hydrothermal alteration, chemical alteration of continental crust, slab subduction, hydrogen escape from the early Earth, and degassing at mid-ocean ridges, hot spots, and arcs into account. The differences in D/H ratios between present-day oceans, oceanic and continental crust, and mantle are thought to reflect isotopic fractionation through seafloor alteration, chemical alteration, and slab dehydration. However, if the speed of plate tectonics has been nearly constant throughout Earth's history, the degassing and regassing rates are too small to reach the present-day D/H ratios. We show that (a) hydrogen escape from reduced early atmosphere, (b) secular net regassing, or (c) faster plate tectonics on early Earth is needed to reproduce the present-day D/H ratios of the water reservoirs. The low D/H ratio of Archean seawater at 3.8 Ga has previously been interpreted as a signature of (a) hydrogen escape, but we find it can also be explained either by (b) secular net degassing or by (c) faster plate tectonics on early Earth. The rates of hydrogen escape from early Earth and secular regassing on present-day Earth are constrained to be lower than 2.1 × 10 11 kg/yr and 3.9 × 10 11 kg/yr. Consequently, the volume of water in the present-day mantle could result entirely from the regassing through Earth's history. In that case, the volume of initial oceans could be 2 to 3 times larger than that of current Earth. We suggest that, in addition to the D/H ratio of Archean seawater, identifying the D/H ratios of both seawater and mantle throughout Earth's history would allow to distinguish these evolutionary scenarios.
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Evidence points to high levels of Archean CH4.
“Evidence points to high levels of Archean CH4 (Fig. 3B).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [186]
Section 4.1 says a high CH4 concentration, corresponding to an upper-limit scenario of 900 ppmv, might have been possible during the early Archean. But the Conclusions say the D/H evidence can also be explained without hydrogen escape; the paper does not establish that the evidence points to high Archean CH4 levels. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe D/H ratio of 3.7 Ga-old seawater estimated from serpentine minerals is 2.5% lighter than today.
“Third, the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio of 3.7 Ga-old seawater estimated from serpentine minerals is 2.5% lighter than today, which could be explained by rapid Archean escape of hydrogen and isotopic fractionation (185, 186).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [186]
Sections 2.4 and 4.4 report a serpentine-based estimate for 3.8 Ga seawater, not 3.7 Ga seawater, and give it an uncertainty of ±5‰ that the claim omits. The Conclusions say hydrogen escape could explain the low Archean D/H ratio, while also identifying other possible explanations. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis lighter D/H could be explained by rapid Archean escape of hydrogen and isotopic fractionation.
“Third, the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio of 3.7 Ga-old seawater estimated from serpentine minerals is 2.5% lighter than today, which could be explained by rapid Archean escape of hydrogen and isotopic fractionation (185, 186).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [186]
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“We note that a steady state in hydrogen isotope compositions of the oceans and mantle has been proposed by previous studies (Taylor, 1974; Javoy, 2005), though dehydration-induced fractionation has not been considered in them.”
BackgroundPaleoclimates, ocean depth, and the oxygen isotopic composition of seawater
Kasting, J. F., Howard, M. T., Wallmann, K., et al. (2006) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.623 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Zhou, T., & Dobos, S. K. (1994) · Clays and Clay Minerals · doi:10.1346/ccmn.1994.0420305 · Cited by 9 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Analyses of natural samples have shown δD = −100‰ to -60‰ (Table 1, Lécuyer et al., 1998; Zhou and Dobos, 1994).”
BackgroundHigh pressure crystal chemistry of hydrous ringwoodite and water in the Earth?s interior
Smyth, J. R. (2004) · Physics of The Earth and Planetary Interiors · doi:10.1016/s0031-9201(04)00061-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Hydrogen Isotopic Fractionation in the Terrestrial Magma Ocean
Pahlevan, K., Schaefer, L., Elkins-Tanton, L. T., et al. (2017) · LPI · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Catling, D. C., & Zahnle, K. J. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax1420 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
“5% lighter than today, which could be explained by rapidArchean escape of hydrogen and isotopic fractionation (185, 186).”
BackgroundDong, J., Fischer, R. A., Stixrude, L. P., & Lithgow‐Bertelloni, C. R. (2021) · AGU Advances · doi:10.1029/2020av000323 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“This low D/H ratio of the Eoarchean ocean could be explained by the preferential loss of hydrogen from the deuterium-depleted early oceans to the mantle through subduction over geologic time, which suggests more voluminous oceans in the early Archean (Kurokawa et al., 2018; Pope et al., 2012).”
BackgroundWhat Factors Affect the Duration and Outgassing of the Terrestrial Magma Ocean?
Nikolaou, A., Katyal, N., Tosi, N., Godolt, M., Grenfell, J. L., & Rauer, H. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab08ed · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“A posterior water regassing process suggested by Kurokawa et al. (2018) could operate through early plate tectonics and could mitigate water loss.”
BackgroundOn the paragenetic modes of minerals: A mineral evolution perspective
Hazen, R. M., & Morrison, S. M. (2021) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2022-8099 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Hydrogen isotopic evidence for early oxidation of silicate Earth
Pahlevan, K., Schaefer, L., & Hirschmann, M. M. (2019) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115770 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“A growing body of evidence suggests that most water in the silicate Earth was initially concentrated near the surface and that Earth’s deep water cycle has been characterized by a net influx of water into the mantle over geologic time, consistent with extensive early outgassing (Kendrick et al., 2017; Korenaga, 2008;…”
BackgroundZakharov, D., & Bindeman, I. N. (2019) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2019.01.014 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Significant decrease of ocean volume and accompanied increase in the seawater dD due to net mantle regassing (Kurokawa et al., 2018) must have occurred by 2.”
BackgroundWestall, F., Höning, D., Avice, G., Gentry, D. M., Gerya, T., Gillmann, C., Izenberg, N. R., Way, M. J., & Wilson, C. (2023) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00960-4 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…of the planet (Baines et al. 2013) However, while recent studies propose scenarios for the evolution of the D/H of Earth’s water (Pahlevan et al. 2019; Kurokawa et al. 2018), estimating the amount of water lost from Venus over the last 4.5 Gyr remains extremely challenging for several reasons.”
BackgroundInfluentialNumerous chondritic impactors and oxidized magma ocean set Earth’s volatile depletion
Sakuraba, H., Kurokawa, H., Genda, H., & Ohta, K. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99240-w · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationOjha, L., Karimi, S., Buffo, J., Nerozzi, S., Holt, J. W., SMREKAR, S. E., & Chevrier, V. F. (2020) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2020gl091409 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“These geological processes directly impact hydrospheric and atmospheric processes (e.g., Halevy & Head, 2014; Kurokawa et al., 2018; Liggins et al., 2020), highlighting the importance of heat flow measurements in our understanding of the geological evolution of planets.”
BackgroundThe role of planetary interior in the long-term evolution of atmospheric CO2on Earth-like exoplanets
Oosterloo, M., Höning, D., Kamp, I., & van der Tak, F. F. S. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039664 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Mello, F. D. S., & Friaça, A. C. S. (2019) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550419000120 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…term form commonly used in previous studies because we discriminate the four main decaying radiogenic heat sources, 235 U, 238 U, 232 Th and 40 K (Labrosse and Jaupart 2007; Turcotte and Schubert 2014): where f rm is the fraction of radiogenic material still present in the mantle, i denotes the…”
BackgroundMethodAn evolutionary system of mineralogy, Part VI: Earth’s earliest Hadean crust (>4370 Ma)
Morrison, S. M., Prabhu, A., & Hazen, R. M. (2022) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2022-8329 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A primordial atmospheric origin of hydrospheric deuterium enrichment on Mars
Pahlevan, K., Schaefer, L., Elkins-Tanton, L. T., Desch, S. J., & Buseck, P. R. (2022) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117772 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Motoyama, M., Tsunakawa, H., & Takahashi, F. (2019) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.07.016 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Subaerial crust emergence hindered by phase-driven lower crust densification on early Earth
Tang, M. H., Chen, H. D., Lee, C. A., & Cao, W. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adq1952 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Although substantial uncertainties persist in current estimates, ocean volume appears to be larger on early Earth based on the hydrogen isotopes recorded in serpentinized Archean oceanic crust ( 67 , 68 ), mantle mineral physics constraint ( 69 ), and secular water cycling modeling results ( 21 ).”
Wang, C., Zhang, Z., Giuliani, A., Demouchy, S., Thoraval, C., Krmíček, L., Bo, H., Zhang, W., & Xia, X. (2022) · Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth · doi:10.1029/2022jb024961 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Water is the dominant volatile component in the Earth and plays a crucial role in controlling surface climate, the emergence and evolution of life as well as rheology and partial melting processes in the Earth's interior (e.g., Dixon et al., 2002; Hirschmann, 2006, 2018; Kurokawa et al., 2018; Marty, 2012).”
BackgroundNakagawa, T., & Iwamori, H. (2019) · Comptes Rendus Géoscience · doi:10.1016/j.crte.2019.02.001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Numerical modeling on global-scale mantle water cycle and its impact on the sea-level change
Nakagawa, T. (2023) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118312 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The Origin of Earth's Mantle Nitrogen: Primordial or Early Biogeochemical Cycling?
Kurokawa, H., Laneuville, M., Li, Y., Zhang, N., Fujii, Y., Sakuraba, H., Houser, C., & Cleaves, H. J. (2022) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2021gc010295 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationImproved online hydrogen isotope analysis of halite aqueous inclusions
Fourel, F., Lécuyer, C., Seris, M., et al. (2019) · Journal of Mass Spectrometry · doi:10.1002/jms.4323 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hoefs, J., & Harmon, R. S. (2023) · Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies · doi:10.1080/10256016.2023.2271127 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Nakagawa, T., & Nakakuki, T. (2018) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-053018-060305 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lécuyer, C., Fourel, F., Blamey, N. J. F., Brand, U., & Fralick, P. W. (2020) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.119583 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Fourel, F., Lécuyer, C., Jame, P., Guironnet, A., Boutier, A., Barbier, M., Blamey, N. J. F., Brand, U., & Fralick, P. W. (2020) · Journal of Mass Spectrometry · doi:10.1002/jms.4615 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kueter, N., Cody, G. D., Foustoukos, D. I., & Mysen, B. O. (2021) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.06.025 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kueter, N., Cody, G. D., Foustoukos, D. I., et al. (2022) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.121076 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Habitability of Venus and a Comparison to Early EarthPreprint
Westall, F., Höning, D., Avice, G., Gentry, D. M., Gerya, T., Gillmann, C., Izenberg, N. R., Way, M. J., & Wilson, C. (2022) · doi:10.1002/essoar.10512790.1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The oxygen valve on hydrogen escape since the great oxidation event
Cooke, G. J., Marsh, D. R., Walsh, C. M., Sainsbury-Martinez, F., & Braam, M. (2026) · Climate of the past · doi:10.5194/cp-22-483-2026 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“From isotopic evidence and computational modelling, since its formation, the Earth may have lost between 0.13 and 2 times the present ocean volume (Pope et al., 2012; Kurokawa et al., 2018; Zahnle et al., 2019) Indeed, the early Archean Earth (4–2.”
InfluentialOxygen as a control over 2.4 billion years of Earth's atmospheric evolutionPreprint
Cooke, G. J., Marsh, D. R., Walsh, C. M., Black, B. A., & Lamarque, J. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Habitabilidade na Via-Láctea em várias escalas
Mello, F. D. S. (2019) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.14.2019.tde-22102019-235141
The impact of tectonic-style on marine transgression and evolution
Stevenson, D. S. (2021) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550421000082
Circulation and Dynamical Roles of Water in the Mantle Convection System
Nakakuki, T., & Kameyama, M. C. (2023) · The Review of High Pressure Science and Technology · doi:10.4131/jshpreview.33.168
Transient oxidation of hazes a source of nutrients during the great oxidation event
Maratrat, L., Jaziri, A. Y., Millan, M., Moulay, V., Vettier, L., Govekar, T., Abello, A., & Carrasco, N. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-13441-1
“In this anoxic Archean world, the atmosphere is thought to be mainly dominated by N 2 as well as significative amounts of CO 27,8 and CH 46,8–10 with no precise constraints on their respective abundancies.”
Isotopic Compositions of Modern Seawater at the Mariana and Yap Trenches
Lin, Y., Haowei, P. A. N., Ta, K., Qi, H., Coplen, T. B., Landais, A., & Wu, N. (2025) · ACS Earth and Space Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.5c00135
Multiple Giant Impacts and Chemical Equilibria: An Integrated Approach to Rocky Planet Formation
Maeda, H., & Sasaki, T. (2025) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ae07cc
Mantle differentiation, mixing, and interior-exterior exchange
Nakagawa, T., Jain, C., Lourenço, D. L., Ballmer, M., & Tackley, P. J. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95547-8.00010-0
Dissipation in the Earth-Moon system
Farhat, M. A. (2023) · doi:10.70675/7d6ea73cz5edbz411bz923fza0ffecc3dda8
- Authors
- Kurokawa, H., Foriel, J., Laneuville, M., Houser, C., & Usui, T.
- Affiliations
- Tokyo Institute of Technology (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Kurokawa, Hiroyuki
- Venue
- Earth and Planetary Science Letters
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-09
- Volume
- 497
- Pages
- 149-160
- ISSN
- 0012-821X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2807270763
- Semantic Scholar
- 5dd62d9e54c113c585ac57c58fcc4bdae1ae4802
- Cited by
- 37
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 3.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Earth and Planetary Science Letters (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- JSPS (15J09448, 17H06457, 18K13602, 16K05619, 17H06454, 17H06459)
- MEXT (15H05832)
- Earth-Life Science Institute
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Keywords
- hydrogen isotopes, hydrogen/deuterium ratio, seawater, atmospheric escape, slab subduction, degassing, plate tectonics, early Earth atmosphere, mantle water, slab dehydration
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