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Cited by 161Hearing Loss and RehabilitationHearing Impairment and CommunicationHearing, Cochlea, Tinnitus, Genetics

The multi-channel cochlear implant: multi-disciplinary development of electrical stimulation of the cochlea and the resulting clinical benefit.

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Clark, Graeme M.·2015·Hearing Research
DOI 10.1016/j.heares.2014.08.002
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Abstract

This multi-disciplinary research showed sound could be coded by electrical stimulation of the cochlea and peripheral auditory nervous system. But the temporal coding of frequency as seen in the experimental animal, was inadequate for the important speech frequencies. The data indicated the limitation was due in particular to deterministic firing of neurons and failure to reproduce the normal fine temporo-spatial pattern of neural responses seen with sound. However, the data also showed the need for the place coding of frequency, and this meant multi-electrodes inserted into the cochlea. Nevertheless, before this was evaluated on people we undertook biological safety studies to determine the effects of surgical trauma and electrical stimuli, and how to prevent infection. Then our research demonstrated place of stimulation had timbre and was perceived as vowels. This led to our discovery in 1978 of the formant-extraction speech code that first enabled severely-profoundly deaf people to understand running speech. This result in people who had hearing before becoming severely deaf was an outcome not previously considered possible. In 1985 it was the first multi-channel implant to be approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It was also the fore runner of our advanced formant and fixed filter strategies When these codes were used from 1985 for those born deaf or deafened early in life we discovered there was a critical period when brain plasticity would allow speech perception and language to be developed near- normally, and this required in particular the acquisition of place coding. In 1990 this led to the first cochlear implant to be approved by the FDA for use in children. Finally, we achieved binaural hearing in 1989 with bilateral cochlear implants, followed by bimodal speech processing in 1990 with a hearing aid in one ear and implant in the other. The above research has been developed industrially, with for example 250,000 people worldwide receiving the Cochlear device in 2013, and as of December 2012 the NIH estimated that approximately 324,200 people worldwide had received this and other implants (NIH Publication No. 11-4798). This article is part of a Special Issue entitled .

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  • Part of the success of cochlear implants seems to be related to the development of sophisticated signal-processing techniques and bioinspired coding strategies developed over the years.

    “Part of the success of cochlear implants seems to be related to the development of sophisticated signal-processing techniques and bioinspired coding strategies developed over the years (Clark, 2015; Boulet et al., 2016; Jain and Vipin Ghosh, 2018).”

    From Toward Long-Term Communication With the Brain in the Blind by Intracortical Stimulation: Challenges and Future Prospects (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, 2015

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Research works printed but not linked: 13

  1. Clark, G.M., 1969a. Middle Ear and Neural Mechanisms in Hearing and the Man- agement of Deafness. PhD thesis. University of Sydney.
  2. Clark, G.M., 2003b. Cochlear Implants: Fundamentals and Applications. Springer- Verlag, New York.
  3. Clark, G.M., Kranz, H.G., Minas, H., 1973a. Response thresholds in the cat to fre- quency modulated sound and electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve in cats. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Pharmacol. Soc. 4 (2), 134.
  4. Clark, G.M., Patrick, J.F., Millar, J.B., Seligman, P.M., Tong, Y.C. 1980b Hearing pros- thesis e speech processor. Australian patent No 535 489.
  5. Clark, G.M., Blamey, P.J., Brown, A.M., Busby, P.A., Dowell, R.C., Franz, B.K.-H., Pyman, B.C., Shepherd, R.K., Tong, Y.C., Webb, R.L., Hirshorn, M.S., Kuzma, J., Mecklenburg, D.J., Money, D.K., Patrick, J.F., Seligman, P.M., 1987a. The Univer- sity of Melbourne e nucleus multi-electrode cochlear implant. Adv. Otol. Rhi- nol. Laryngol. 38, 162e173 (Basel: Karger).
  6. Clark, G.M., Dowell, R.C., Martin, L.F., Tong, Y.C., Clark, G.M., Seligman, P.M., Patrick, J.F. (Eds.), 1982. A 12-Consonant Confusion Study on a Multiple-channel Cochlear Implant Patient, 25, pp. 509e516. J. Speech Hear. Res.
  7. Dowell, R.C., Whitford, L.A., Seligman, P.M., Franz, B.K.-H., Clark, G.M., 1990. Pre- liminary results with a miniature speech processor for the 22-electrode/ Cochlear hearing prosthesis. In: Sacristan, T. (Ed.), Oto-rhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery. Kugler and Ghedini, Amsterdam, pp. 1167e1173.
  8. Eddington, D.K., Dobelle, W.H., Brackmann, D., Mladejovsky, M.G., Parkin, J., 1978b. Place and periodicity pitch elicited by stimulation of multiple scala tympani electrodes in deaf volunteers. Trans. Am. Soc. Artif. Int. Organs 24, 1e5.
  9. Laird, R.K., 1979. The Bioengineering Development of a Sound Encoder for an Implantable Hearing Prosthesis for the Profoundly Deaf. The University of Melbourne. Master of Engineering Science Thesis.
  10. Minas, H., 1973. Acoustic and Electrical Stimulation of the Cochlea in the Cat: a Behavioural Study. Dept of Otolaryngology, University of Melbourne. Bachelor of Medical Science thesis.
  11. Tong, Y.C., Clark, G.M., 1980. Speech comprehension with multiple-channel elec- trical stimulation of human auditory nerve fibres. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Phar- macol. Soc. 11, 201.
  12. Tong, Y.C., Clark, G.M., 1982. Percepts produced by electrical stimulation of the human cochlea. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Pharmacol. Soc. 13, 150.
  13. Tong, Y.C., Millar, J.B., Clark, G.M., Martin, L.F., Busby, P.A., Patrick, J.F., 1980d. Psy- chophysical speech perception studies on two multiple channel cochlear pa- tients. J. Laryngol. Otol. 94 (11), 1241e1256.

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Authors
Clark, G. M.
Affiliations
The University of Melbourne (AU)
Corresponding author
Clark, Graeme M.
ORCID
Clark, Graeme M.
Venue
Hearing Research
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2015-04
Volume
322
Pages
4-13
ISSN
0378-5955 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.heares.2014.08.002
OpenAlex
W2003620549
Cited by
161
References
95
Citations by year
2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 85 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8
FWCI
0.97
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Hearing Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Cochlear
  • Australian Government
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hearing Loss and Rehabilitation
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Hearing, Cochlea, Tinnitus, Genetics
Keywords
cochlear implants, place coding, temporal coding, bilateral cochlear implants, bimodal hearing, timbre perception
MeSH terms
Acoustic Stimulation, Animals, Cochlear Implants, Cooperative Behavior, Electric Stimulation, Humans, Prosthesis Design, Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted, Speech Intelligibility, Speech Perception, Cochlear Implantation, Persons with Hearing Disabilities, Persons With Hearing Impairments, Comprehension, Interdisciplinary Communication

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