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A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children
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“There is substantial evidence of a significant relationship between general intelligence and performance-based EF measures (Brydges, Reid, Fox, & Anderson, 2012;Dennis et al., 2009;Duggan & Garcia-Barrera, 2015;Engelhardt et al., 2016).”
From Assessment of executive function in ADHD adolescents: contribution of performance tests and rating scales (2018) · cites this paper as Brydges et al., 2012
Citations
Cites
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Cravet, E., & Ger, E. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106354 · Cited by 5
Zhang, Y., Rutsohn, J., Kim, S. H., Pandey, J., Schultz, R. T., Zwaigenbaum, L., Burrows, C. A., Dager, S. R., John, S., Estes, A. M., et al. (2026) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-025-09671-z · Cited by 3
“Intelligence and IQ have been linked with EF in school-age children, making it necessary to parse out the effects of EF from the influence of IQ [31–33].”
A Control-Value Approach to Affective Growth
Pekrun, R. H. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0055 · Cited by 4
Linnenbrink‐Garcia, L. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0065 · Cited by 3
Executive function predictors of science achievement in middle-school students
Varma, K., Boekel, M. V., Aylward, G., & Varma, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1197002 · Cited by 3
Everyday Executive Functioning Profiles in Adults with Down Syndrome
Miezah, D., Porter, M. A., Batchelor, J., Gavria, P., Boulton, K., & Reeve, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06532-x · Cited by 3
“Researchers have debated whether EF is a unitary (Brydges et al., 2012; Duncan et al., 2000) or multidimensional construct (Andrés & Van der Linden, 2002) among healthy samples.”
Koushiou, M., Manzoor, S., Jossif, A. P., & Ferreira, N. B. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12242594 · Cited by 3
Paulsen, B. A., Friedman, N. P., & Banich, M. T. (2025) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101549 · Cited by 3
“…(Peterson et al., 2022) among other individual differences, it is distinct from intelligence (IQ), and IQ and cEF have been shown to predict distinct dimensions of other cognitive measures (Blair, 2006; Brydges et al., 2012; Demetriou et al., 2014; Friedman et al., 2006; Kane and Engle, 2002).”
EXPLAINING THE ABILITY TO LEARN ANALOGIES: THE ROLE OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND FLUID INTELLIGENCE
Ropovik, I., Bobaková, M., Ferjenčík, J., Filičková, M., Kovalčíková, I., & Slavkovská, M. (2016) · Studia Psychologica · doi:10.21909/sp.2016.04.726 · Cited by 3
“…studies where WM was found to have a very strong predictive power with respect to fluid mental ability in younger children as well as adolescents (Brydges et al., 2012; Friedman et al., 2006), the results of the present study support the notion that the ability to maintain and process active…”
BackgroundResultDevelopment of Executive Function Skills in Childhood
Happaney, K. R., & Zelazo, P. D. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108399838.023 · Cited by 11
Assessment of Executive Functions in Children
Clair‐Thompson, H. S., & Wen, Y. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863564.003.0004 · Cited by 7
Fiedler, S., Krüger, N., & Daseking, M. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9071089 · Cited by 3
“Brydges and colleagues [9] assume, on the basis of a latent variable model, that in 7- to 9-year-old children, gf and gc share 80% and 69% common variance with EF, respectively.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMotivation Is the Interaction Between Dispositions and Context
Stipek, D. J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0005 · Cited by 4
Locke, E. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0003 · Cited by 8
Marsh, H. W., & Basarkod, G. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0017 · Cited by 4
Nagengast, B., & Trautwein, U. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0068 · Cited by 4
Harnessing Biopsychology and Mobile Technology to Develop Motivation Science in the Next Decade
Martin, A. J., Burns, E. C., Kennett, R., & Pearson, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0071 · Cited by 4
Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0021 · Cited by 4
Skei, L., von Tetzchner, S., Hartshorne, T. S., Skei, S., & Landrø, N. I. (2023) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.1080/17518423.2023.2242942 · Cited by 3
“While some studies have suggested that a single-factor solution is better for younger children, 11 three factors have proven adequate for adolescents and adults.”
BackgroundStasytytė, V. (2012) · Contemporary issues in business, management and economics engineering · doi:10.3846/cibme.2012.16 · Cited by 3
Verlauf exekutiver Funktionen bei Vorschulkindern mit Entwicklungsauffälligkeiten
Schuchardt, K., Piekny, J., & Mähler, C. (2016) · Kindheit und Entwicklung · doi:10.1026/0942-5403/a000213 · Cited by 3
Assessing Motivation Dynamically
Schunk, D. H. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0074 · Cited by 4
Most Motivation Research in Education Is Not Yet Useful for Teachers
Patrick, H. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0064 · Cited by 7
Is Academic Motivation a Tree Trunk, a Fan, a Wall, a Rope, a Snake, or a Spear?
Skinner, E. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0061 · Cited by 4
Stability and Predictors of Change in Executive Functions from the Age of 6 to 8
Halse, M. (2014) · BIBSYS Brage (BIBSYS (Norway)) · Cited by 3
Modrek, A., & Wolf, S. (2024) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12764 · Cited by 2
Lau, C. Y. H., & Yang, H. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06956-9 · Cited by 3
“Research has shown that the factor structure of EF varies across different age groups, with patterns of unity (i.e., single factor) in preschoolers (Brydges et al., 2012) and older adults (de Frias et al., 2009) as opposed to more differentiated and diverse structures in adolescents and young…”
Kim, E., Radtke, S. R., Musci, R. J., Hooper, S. R., Mulick, A. R., Abuabara, K., Gelfand, J. M., Langan, S., & Wan, J. (2025) · Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology · doi:10.1111/jdv.20754 · Cited by 2
“18,19 EF weaknesses are also known to contribute to impaired treatment adherence so could negatively impact AD severity as well.”
Rey-Mermet, A., Singmann, H., & Oberauer, K. (2025) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02696-4 · Cited by 5
“…& Greenberg, 2013; von Bastian et al., 2016), and in some cases they failed to load on a factor (Klauer et al., 2010; Krumm et al., 2009) or they had to be merged with other tasks to load on a factor (e.g., Brydges et al., 2012; Hedden & Yoon, 2006; Klauer et al., 2010; van der Sluis et al., 2007).”
Kronenberger, W. G., Castellanos, I., Kincaid, M. A., Nelson, R. F., Yates, C. W., Sehgal, S. T., Ditmars, A. M., Herbert, C. J., & Pisoni, D. B. (2025) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/mao.0000000000004607 · Cited by 2
de Chantal, P., Leblanc, M., Houde-Labrecque, C., & Labrie, C. (2026) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.70095 · Cited by 4
Filičková, M., Ropovik, I., Bobaková, M., & Kovalčíková, I. (2015) · Journal of Pedagogy / Pedagogický casopis · doi:10.1515/jped-2015-0002 · Cited by 3
“, 2006; Brydges et al., 2012). Research has linked children’s performance on fluid reasoning tasks, such as figural matrices, to their memory span and working memory capacity (for instance, Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005; Hornung et al., 2011; Kail, 2007; Tillman, Nyberg, & Bohlin, 2008). Stevenson (2012) found that a…”
BackgroundInfluentialRiccio, C. A., Jimenez, E. M., Schwartz, J. R., & Chien, H.-Y. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2020.1780129 · Cited by 4
“While some models of EF include working memory (McCabe et al., 2010; Miyake et al., 2000; Pennington et al., 1996), others do not (Brydges et al., 2012; Wiebe et al., 2011; Willoughby et al., 2010).”
MethodGoh, E.-K., & Jeon, H. J. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10040074 · Cited by 2
The Effect of Alexithymia on Adolescent Risk-taking Behavior
Lu, H., & Fu, G. (2022) · International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education · doi:10.20431/2349-0381.0908002 · Cited by 5
“There are two types of inhibitory control: response inhibition and conflict inhibition (Brydges et al., 2012).”
BackgroundControlling Your Own Motivation Is an Acquired Skill
Wolters, C. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0033 · Cited by 2
How Does Context Shape Motivation?
Bong, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0044 · Cited by 2
How Do We Motivate People? By Working with Their Self-Beliefs
Usher, E. L. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0054 · Cited by 7
Kim, S. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0008 · Cited by 2
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Bukva, A., & Memišević, H. (2024) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125241306474 · Cited by 2
“However, since a one-factor (unitary) model also fi t the data well, we can conclude that children in this age group exhibit both unity and diversity in EF, aligning with previous research (Brydges et al., 2012, 2014).”
Predicting Executive Dysfunctions Based on Attachment and Parenting Styles in Students
Malek, A., Abdolmohammadi, K., Abadi, F. G. S., & Soltani, M. (2022) · Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20221101.12 · Cited by 2
“The results of present study showed that parenting styles are able to predict executive dysfunctions, which are consistent with the findings of other studies [17, 16, 11, 14, 27].”
BackgroundResultUsing Technologies to Teach Different Age Groups Meaningfully
Hačatrjana, L. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01551-0_5 · Cited by 2
(2019) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-88945-837-0 · Cited by 2
Two Routes to the Self-Regulation of Motivation and Goals
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0031 · Cited by 2
Creating a Motivating Learning Environment
Alexander, P. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0050 · Cited by 2
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Motivation
Ntoumanis, N. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0020 · Cited by 3
The Most Fundamental Limitation in Motivation Theory and Research Is Our Theories
Anderman, E. M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0066 · Cited by 3
Gray, D. L., & Harris-Thomas, B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0076 · Cited by 2
Competition Can Enhance Motivation—But Typically Undermines It
Reeve, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0028 · Cited by 6
Garrett, M. A. (2015) · Digital Commons - PCOM (Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine) · Cited by 2
Schulte, M., Trujillo, N., Rodríguez‐Villagra, O. A., Salas, N., Ibáñez, A. M., & Huepe, D. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1455665/v1 · Cited by 2
Prediction of Executive Functions Based on Impairment in Motor and Linguistic Growth
Abdolmohamadi, K., Ashouri, A., Abadi, F. G. S., et al. (2020) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/ijpcp.26.2.227.12 · Cited by 1
Toplak, M. E. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816636-9.00001-3 · Cited by 1
Sociomoral Reasoning Skills during Childhood: A Comprehensive and Predictive Approach
Morasse, F., Bernier, A., Lalonde, G., Hétu, S., & Beauchamp, M. H. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12091226 · Cited by 1
“65)—suggesting that a general executive factor was the best fit for the data [67].”
BackgroundIs There a Need for Psychological Needs in Theories of Achievement Motivation?
Wigfield, A., & Koenka, A. C. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0046 · Cited by 1
Differential Impact of WM Load on Attention in Young Adults Versus Children and Adolescents
Park, H., & Kim, S.-Y. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11091057 · Cited by 1
“By understanding how their WM and attention processes differ from typical developmental trajectories, more effective educational tools, therapeutic interventions, and cognitive training programs can be designed to meet the specific needs of diverse learners.”
BackgroundMalpique, A., Asıl, M., Pino‐Pasternak, D., & Valcan, D. S. (2025) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/07410883251346405 · Cited by 1
“A set of higher-order cognitive processes related to intentional goal-directed behavior (Brydges et al., 2012), EF has been commonly understood to comprise three key cognitive processes, namely working memory, inhibition, and shifting (Miyake et al., 2000).”
The effect of processing speed on academic fluency in children with neurodevelopmental disorders
Kim, S. Y., Esprit, J., Levine, A. S., & Stephenson, K. G. (2025) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2025.101965 · Cited by 2
“…between PS and ASD remained after accounting for inattention, the only symptom dimension that showed significant association with slow PS. Additionally, evidence suggests that, while related, executive functioning and intelligence are separate constructs (Brydges, Reid, Fox, & Anderson, 2012).”
DeJoseph, M. L., Merculief, A., Sulik, M. J., & Obradović, J. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2578816 · Cited by 2
“…the number of factors identified has varied slightly, most research points to a single factor of cognitive ability during the preschool years (e.g., Brydges et al., 2012; Hughes, 2011; Karr et al., 2018; Wiebe et al., 2008), with the number of factors increasing throughout development (Best &…”
Grobe, S. E., Könen, T., Rocker, C., Grüneisen, L., Dörrenbächer-Ulrich, L., Perels, F., & Karbach, J. (2025) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2025.101644 · Cited by 2
Ezeugwu, C. R., Adedayo, M., Apochi, O., Oyekola, A. O., & Olaseni, J. T. (2026) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70155 · Cited by 3
Lean, R. E., Anaya, B., Gorham, L. S., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2026) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-026-09710-3 · Cited by 1
“Composite scores were used because EF shows a unitary structure in childhood [53, 54] and because composite scores capture shared variance across EF tasks thereby improving the reliability of EF measurement [55, 56].”
End-state comfort effects in adults with intellectual disabilities: A pilot study
Kikuchi, Y., Hirata, S., & Okuzumi, H. (2021) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2021.1896120 · Cited by 1
“The RCPM score, however, is reportedly useful as an index of fluid intelligence, which is closely related to executive function (Brydges et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInterest and Its Relation to Rewards, Reward Expectations, and Incentives
Hidi, S. E., & Renninger, K. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0027 · Cited by 2
Motivation Is the State of Wanting Something . . . But Do We Want the Right Things?
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Motivation Processes and Outcomes
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Should Theoretical Integration Occur in the Motivation Literature?
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Does One Size Fit All? Cultural Perspectives on School Motivation
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Digitization Will Bring Profound Changes in Educational Practice and Research on Motivation
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Are Cognition, Motivation, and Emotion the Same or Different?
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What Teachers Need to Know About Promoting Student Motivation to Learn
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Good Versus Bad Motivation? Avoiding the Lure of False Dichotomies
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Gaps in Contemporary Motivation Research
Martin, A. J., & Burns, E. C. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0062 · Cited by 3
The Uneasy Relationship Between Conscious and Non-Conscious Motivation
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Insights Gained from Controversy 3
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Beyond Unity and Diversity: Tasks Used to Assess Attentional Control Measure Task-Specific ProcessesPreprint
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Maternal obesity, gestational weight gain, and child cognition, behavior, and academic achievement
Pugh, S. J. (2015) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
The role of executive function in writing achievement in first grade
Jackson, A. F. (2015) · Library, Museums and Press - UDSpace (University of Delaware) · doi:10.58088/der3-g362
The Mixture Model of Executive Functions and Ordinary National Educational Score
Ammawat, W., T.Chaisuwan, P., Rungrueng, C., Phuengphol, N., & Thongbang, P. (2015) · Asian journal of management sciences & education
Brydges, C. R. (2014) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA)
Self-citationTowards a multivariate assessment of executive functions
Karr, J. E. (2017) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria)
Kehlmaier, C., & Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A. (2018) · Graellsia · doi:10.3989/graellsia.2018.v74.191
Effects of executive functioning on false memory in children
Tessier, P. (2016) · doi:10.33915/etd.7135
“ability may be related to poorer executive functioning (Barbey et al., 2012; Brydges et al., 2012) and memory (Allen, Martin, & Martin, 2012), though this research has been mixed (Arffa, 2007; Friedman et al.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Brydges, C. R., Reid, C. L., Fox, A. M., & Anderson, M.
- Affiliations
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Brydges, Christopher R.
- Venue
- Intelligence
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-09
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 458-469
- ISSN
- 0160-2896 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2070322283
- Semantic Scholar
- adfc7c2ba98b8ff94ae61868514bfd7c8b2101a0
- Cited by
- 351
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 22.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Intelligence (publishedVersion)
- Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University) (submittedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Murdoch University Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- executive function, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, working memory, updating, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, one-factor model, children, cognitive development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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