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Recruiting for health, medical or psychosocial research using Facebook: Systematic review
Open accessAbstract
Recruiting participants is a challenge for many health, medical and psychosocial research projects. One tool more frequently being used to improve recruitment is the social networking website Facebook. A systematic review was conducted to identify studies that have used Facebook to recruit participants of all ages, to any psychosocial, health or medical research. 110 unique studies that used Facebook as a recruitment source were included in the review. The majority of studies used a cross-sectional design (80%) and addressed a physical health or disease issue (57%). Half (49%) of the included studies reported specific details of the Facebook recruitment process. Researchers paid between $1.36 and $110 per completing participants (Mean = $17.48, SD = $23.06). Among studies that examined the representativeness of their sample, the majority concluded (86%) their Facebook-recruited samples were similarly representative of samples recruited via traditional methods. These results indicate that Facebook is an effective and cost-efficient recruitment method. Researchers should consider their target group, advertisement wording, offering incentives and no-cost methods of recruitment when considering Facebook as a recruitment source. It is hoped this review will assist researchers to make decisions regarding the use of Facebook as a recruitment tool in future research. • Health, medical and psychosocial research recruiting participants of all ages via Facebook is reviewed. • Results suggest Facebook is an effective and cost efficient recruitment method. • Results suggest Facebook can be used to obtain samples similarly representative to samples recruited via traditional methods.
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“Samples recruited by Facebook have been found to present similar representativeness to convention methods in achieving age and gender distribution and are usually less costly [53].”
From A mobile health intervention (LifeBuoy App) to help young people manage suicidal thoughts: protocol for a mixed-methods randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [53]
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An empirical study on performance comparisons of different types of DevOps team formations
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“These data are consistent with prior research demonstrating that using social media to recruit participants may be an effective way to recruit specific populations of minoritized groups that are underrepresented in clinical research [28,29].”
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“Most existing studies indicate that Facebook can be used to recruit samples with similar demographics to the general population, although individuals of White ethnicity and those who have completed postsecondary education are often overrepresented [4,5].”
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BackgroundEngelke, L., Calvano, C., Pohl, S., Winter, S., & Renneberg, B. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/52043 · Cited by 4
“…assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on parents, participants are more likely to be female [4,9,14-17,19,22,27, 40-45 40-45] The generalizability of results from nonprobability studies with web-based convenience samples was already discussed before the COVID-19 pandemic [29,31,67-69].”
Research participation effects and where to find them: a systematic review of studies on alcohol
Gunnarsson, K. U., Collier, E. S., & Bendtsen, M. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111668 · Cited by 4
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Thongkham, M., & Srivarapongse, T. (2019) · Journal of Open Innovation Technology Market and Complexity · doi:10.3390/joitmc5030061 · Cited by 4
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BackgroundRecruiting custodial grandmothers using Facebook
Clark, K. C., Kelley, S. J., & Clark, P. C. (2021) · Public Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/phn.12980 · Cited by 4
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ResultThe InterFace of Social Media Recruitment and Nursing Education Research
McNelis, A. M., Dreifuerst, K. T., & Beebe, S. L. (2023) · CIN Computers Informatics Nursing · doi:10.1097/cin.0000000000001002 · Cited by 3
A theoretical model test of emotional and cognitive reactions to sexual trauma
Şalcıoğlu, E., Kuzgun, T. B., & Şimşek, Ö. F. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05380-9 · Cited by 3
“…used Facebook as a recruitment source it was reported that compared to traditional recruitment, Facebook recruitment tended to result in similarly representative samples with lower cost per participant, more rapid recruitment, and easier access to hard-to-reach populations (Thornton et al., 2016).”
"Dancing on the edge of the abyss": Posttraumatic growth in men cancer survivors
Levin-Dagan, N., & Hamama, L. (2024) · European Journal of Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2024.102553 · Cited by 3
Population Recruitment Strategies in the Age of Bots: Insights from the What Is on Your Plate Study
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Bodini, L., Bonetto, C., Colombi, M., Barbieri, N., Bortel, T. V. V., & Lasalvia, A. (2024) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2024.2351151 · Cited by 3
“…than 30,000 members across italy. literature reports that Facebook is an effective and cost-efficient recruitment method for psychosocial research (thornton et al., 2016). the study description and invitation to participate as well as the link to the online questionnaires were posted to all…”
Barnes, L. A. J., Rolfe, M. I., Barclay, L. M., McCaffery, K. J., & Aslani, P. (2025) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2025.104373 · Cited by 4
E-cigarette Purchase Intention through Facebook Social Media: A Cross-Sectional Study
Amin, N. P. S. Z. S. (2021) · Trends journal of sciences research · doi:10.31586/ujbm.2021.091 · Cited by 3
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Effective clinical study recruitment of patients with atopic dermatitis through social media
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Covid-19: ammestart under en global pandemi
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“Studier viser at rekruttering på Facebook kan gi representative utvalg på lik linje med tradisjonelle innsamlingsmetoder (30).”
BackgroundIs there a female-male self-selection bias in TSST-based reactive stress research?
Xu, V., Journault, A., Alarie, S., Giguère, C., Beaumont, E., & LUPIEN, S. J. (2025) · Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.cpnec.2025.100296 · Cited by 2
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“However, other studies (Table 1) have shown that digital recruitment strategies, including social media platforms like Facebook, have been successfully employed to engage underrepresented populations [111].”
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Mental Health and Wellbeing Literacy: a Cross-National Comparison
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“…heterosexual ” ) in the general population (a female-to-male ratio of 1.94:1; Bailey et al., 2016) and (b) the female preponderance in volunteer samples in mental health research (a female-to-male ratio of 2.85:1; Thornton et al., 2016). b Averaged between maternal and paternal education levels.”
BackgroundInfluentialFeasibility of Social Media Recruitment for Orofacial Cleft Genetic Research
Carlock, G., Manning, K. E., & Leslie, E. J. (2021) · The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal · doi:10.1177/10556656211024484 · Cited by 2
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“Quantitative analyses have also shown that Facebook is an enriched resource for medical research (Thornton et al., 2016).”
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Samskipti án orða. Tengsl óyrtrar hegðunar yfirmanns og tilfinningalegrar líðan starfsfólks
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“First, the recruitment of participants through web-based platforms may introduce selection bias, as individuals who are active on SM may be different from the general population [97].”
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“Benefits include reduced costs, shorter recruitment periods, and improved participant selection [43–47].”
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Manzanero, S., Kozlovskaia, M., Vlahovich, N., & Hughes, D. C. (2018) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.8243 · Cited by 1
“Despite an absence of sex-related differences in social media or Facebook usage or behavior [21], the female recruitment rate through Facebook of 61.4% (601/979) was high, in line with previous studies that also used Facebook (60% in average) [5].”
InfluentialMakhdoom, N. M., Heissam, K., EL-Bab, M. E. F., Shalaby, S., & Abdulaal, A. (2009) · INTED proceedings · Cited by 1
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“Several reviews have identified that the use of Facebook to recruit for health research can prove fruitful, especially for hard-to-reach populations [31-33].”
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Jerković, D. (2022) · Kriminologija & socijalna integracija : časopis za kriminologiju, penologiju i poremećaje u ponašanju · doi:10.31299/ksi.30.1.5 · Cited by 1
Prevalence of spinal pain in a population of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Hrkać, A., Perković, R., Krišto, B., & Puljak, L. (2022) · AIMS Public Health · doi:10.3934/publichealth.2022053 · Cited by 1
“Moreover, a systematic review from 2016 reported similar representativeness of samples recruited on Facebook and known traditional methods [17].”
Lutz, J., Pratap, A., Lenze, E. J., Bestha, D. P., Lipschitz, J. M., Karantzoulis, S., Vaidyanathan, U., Robin, J., Horan, W. P., Brannan, S. K., et al. (2023) · PubMed Central · Cited by 1
Çollaku, P. J., Shala, M., Shahini, M., Këndusi, V., & Osmani, Q. (2023) · Journal of College Student Mental Health · doi:10.1080/87568225.2023.2269617 · Cited by 1
“As shown in a systematic review of 109 published articles, an Internet-based survey is an effective and cost-efficient recruitment method (Thornton et al., 2016) for reaching inaccessible potential participants from different regions by eliminating geographical boundaries.”
The role of patient ergonomics in improving health research participation
Zayas‐Cabán, T., & Rogers, C. C. (2024) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2024.104458 · Cited by 2
(2020) · ADIKTOLOGIE Journal · doi:10.35198/01-2019-002-0002 · Cited by 1
Leach, M., Barnes, L. A. J., McLintock, A., Diezel, H., Ryan, K., & Steel, A. (2021) · BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12906-021-03475-z · Cited by 1
“The use of Facebook to quickly and effectively facilitate participant recruitment is known to be a costeffective, efficient method for targeted recruitment [52, 53].”
MethodThe Impact of Relationship Separation on Suicidality and Mental Health
Kazan, D. (2018) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · doi:10.25911/5d67b7babc65d · Cited by 1
A New Remote Guided Method for Supervised Web-Based Cognitive Testing to Ensure High Quality DataPreprint
Leong, V., Raheel, K., Yi, S. J., Kacker, K., Karlaftis, V. M., Vassiliu, C., Chen, S. A., Robbins, T. W., Sahakian, B. J., & Kourtzi, Z. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/asc67 · Cited by 1
Mackesy‐Amiti, M. E., Johnson, T. P., & Boodram, B. (2019) · doi:10.2196/preprints.16402 · Cited by 1
Taylor, J., Sukhoi, O., Newson, J. J., & Thiagarajan, T. C. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/p9ur6 · Cited by 1
Prevention of paediatric hot beverage scalds
Burgess, J. (2019) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2019.182
An exploration of sharps injuries within a nursing student population in the UK
Hambridge, K. (2019) · PEARL (University of Plymouth) · doi:10.24382/481
Klædd eða nakin? Áhrif nektar á viðhorf til auglýsinga
Halldórsdóttir, S., Hermannsdóttir, A., & Kristinsson, K. (2020) · Tímarit um viðskipti og efnahagsmál · doi:10.24122/tve.a.2020.17.2.1
Testing Users’ Ability to Recognize Fake News in Three Countries. An Experimental Perspective
Vziatysheva, V., Эдуардовна, С. Я., Porshnev, A., Terpilovskii, M., Koltcov, S., & Bryanov, K. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77626-8_25
Elicitation of Teacher Beliefs Related to School Garden Experiences
Taylor, S. (2021)
COVID-19: Initiation of breastfeeding during a global pandemic
Stette, A. H. H., Thorsteinsen, C., & Henriksen, L. (2021) · Sykepleien Forskning · doi:10.4220/sykepleienf.2021.85747en
Attieh, S., & Loiselle, C. G. (2021) · Journal of Psychosocial Oncology Research and Practice · doi:10.1097/or9.0000000000000060
Tailoring Facebook Advertisements to Reach Gay and Bisexual Men: Short Report (Preprint)Preprint
Card, K. G., Vandecasteyen, R., Jollimore, J., Olarewaju, G., & Hart, T. A. (2018) · doi:10.2196/preprints.12154
Child and Parent Emotion Study (CAPES)Preprint
Westrupp, E. M., Macdonald, J. A., Youssef, G. J., Bennett, C., Havighurst, S. S., Kehoe, C. E., Foley, D., Berkowitz, T. S., & King, G. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vrmhj
Finding the silver lining: aging well amongst older Brazilian women
Lucchese, S. P. (2022) · doi:10.32920/19750075
Finding the silver lining: aging well amongst older Brazilian women
Lucchese, S. P. (2022) · doi:10.32920/19750075.v1
Castañeda‐Avila, M. A., Mazor, K. M., Lapane, K. L., & Epstein, M. M. (2023) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/s10552-023-01675-1
“ResearchMatch and Facebook have previously been used to recruit patients for qualitative studies and studies of healthcare decision making [16, 17].”
Makinde, O. A. (2023) · Global perspectives on health geography · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41268-4_4
Lajçi, D., & Hajdari, P. (2024) · Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental · doi:10.24857/rgsa.v18n8-045
Kumelkproteinallergi hos barnet i et mødreperspektiv: en kvalitativ studie
Andresen, S. S. (2024) · Sykepleien Forskning · doi:10.4220/sykepleienf.2024.95936
Factors associated with intention of HIV testing among Asian American men: a path analysis
Luu, M., Haardörfer, R., Nehl, E. J., Escoffery, C., & Sales, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-024-00502-5
“Taken together, we examined the rela - tionship between the TPB constructs and acculturation, mas-culinity, social norms about HIV testing, homonegativity, science research (Gray et al., 2010; Kapp et al., 2013; Thornton et al., 2016 ).”
Cow’s milk protein allergy in children from a mother’s perspective: a qualitative study
Andresen, S. S. (2024) · Sykepleien Forskning · doi:10.4220/sykepleienf.2024.95936en
Willingness to pay for the welfare of stray companion animals in Greece
Siettou, A. S., Theodoropoulou, E., Karagianni, V., & Sossidou, E. Ν. (2025) · Revista Veterinaria · doi:10.30972/vet.3617986
“Social media recruitment has been shown to be effective in gathering data from wide-ranging demographics for public health and social science research (Thornton et al. 2016).”
Hadley, M. (2022) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/4mk9-kn9y
Metadata
- Authors
- Thornton, L., Batterham, P. J., Fassnacht, D. B., Kay-Lambkin, F., Calear, A. L., & Hunt, S.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Australian National University (AU)
- Venue
- Internet Interventions
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-05
- Volume
- 4
- Pages
- 72-81
- ISSN
- 2214-7829 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6096238
- OpenAlex
- W2282737262
- Cited by
- 326
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 4.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Internet Interventions (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NOVA (University of Newcastle Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- University of New South Wales
- National Health and Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Social Media in Health Education
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Ethics in Clinical Research
- Keywords
- Facebook, participant recruitment, social networking sites, online recruitment, recruitment incentives, sample representativeness, health research, medical research, psychosocial research
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