Cited by 326Social Media in Health EducationSurvey Methodology and NonresponseEthics in Clinical Research

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Recruiting for health, medical or psychosocial research using Facebook: Systematic review

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Thornton, Louise, Batterham, Philip J., Fassnacht, Daniel B., Kay-Lambkin, Frances, Calear, Alison L., Hunt, Sally·2016·Internet Interventions

DOI 10.1016/j.invent.2016.02.001PMC PMC6096238

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Abstract

Recruiting participants is a challenge for many health, medical and psychosocial research projects. One tool more frequently being used to improve recruitment is the social networking website Facebook. A systematic review was conducted to identify studies that have used Facebook to recruit participants of all ages, to any psychosocial, health or medical research. 110 unique studies that used Facebook as a recruitment source were included in the review. The majority of studies used a cross-sectional design (80%) and addressed a physical health or disease issue (57%). Half (49%) of the included studies reported specific details of the Facebook recruitment process. Researchers paid between $1.36 and $110 per completing participants (Mean = $17.48, SD = $23.06). Among studies that examined the representativeness of their sample, the majority concluded (86%) their Facebook-recruited samples were similarly representative of samples recruited via traditional methods. These results indicate that Facebook is an effective and cost-efficient recruitment method. Researchers should consider their target group, advertisement wording, offering incentives and no-cost methods of recruitment when considering Facebook as a recruitment source. It is hoped this review will assist researchers to make decisions regarding the use of Facebook as a recruitment tool in future research. • Health, medical and psychosocial research recruiting participants of all ages via Facebook is reviewed. • Results suggest Facebook is an effective and cost efficient recruitment method. • Results suggest Facebook can be used to obtain samples similarly representative to samples recruited via traditional methods.

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“This was to increase male participants and address the commonly higher ratio of female to male participants in internet-based mental health trial research [43].”
Self-citation
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Aouissi, H. A., Ababsa, M., Leveau, C. M., Alexandru-Ionuţ, P., Słomka, A., Kechebar, M. S. A., Yasuhara, J., Epelboin, L., & Ohmagari, N. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10071341 · Cited by 34
Social Media Recruitment for a Web Survey of Sexual and Gender Minority Youth: An Evaluation of Methods Used and Resulting Sample Diversity
Stern, M. J., Fordyce, E., Hansen, C., Viox, M. H., Michaels, S., Schlissel, A. C., Avripas, S. A., Harper, C. R., Johns, M. M., & Dunville, R. L. (2020) · LGBT Health · doi:10.1089/lgbt.2019.0311 · Cited by 32
How big is your bubble? Characteristics of self-isolating household units (‘bubbles’) during the COVID-19 Alert Level 4 period in New Zealand: a cross-sectional survey
Kearns, N., Shortt, N., Kearns, C., Eathorne, A., Holliday, M., Mackle, D., Martindale, J., Semprini, A. C., Weatherall, M., Beasley, R. W., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042464 · Cited by 31
A Practical Do-It-Yourself Recruitment Framework for Concurrent eHealth Clinical Trials: Identification of Efficient and Cost-Effective Methods for Decision Making (Part 2)
Lattie, E. G., Kaiser, S. M., Alam, N., Tomasino, K. N., Sargent, E., Rubanovich, C. K., Palac, H., & Mohr, D. C. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/11050 · Cited by 31
“While the majority of studies (80%) included in this review were cross-sectional surveys and thus those ad clicks were more likely to convert to active study participation compared to intervention studies that last several weeks to months, Thornton and colleagues [19] findings demonstrate the broad range of fees that…”
Background
Social Media for Tobacco Smoking Cessation Intervention: A Review of the Literature
Thrul, J., Tormohlen, K. N., & Meacham, M. C. (2019) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-019-00246-2 · Cited by 40
Recruiting fathers for parenting research using online advertising campaigns: Evidence from an Australian study
Leach, L., Bennetts, S. K., Giallo, R., & Cooklin, A. (2019) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12698 · Cited by 30
Effectiveness of social media (Facebook), targeted mailing, and in-person solicitation for the recruitment of young adult in a diabetes self-management clinical trial
Salvy, S., Carandang, K. M., Vigen, C. L. P., Concha-Chavez, A., Sequeira, P. A., Blanchard, J., Díaz, J., Raymond, J. K., & Pyatak, E. A. (2020) · Clinical Trials · doi:10.1177/1740774520933362 · Cited by 30
Measuring Perceived Severity of Intimate Partner Violence against Women (IPVAW) among the General Population and IPVAW Offenders
Martín-Fernández, M., Enrique Gracia, A., & Lila, M. (2022) · Psychosocial Intervention · doi:10.5093/pi2022a8 · Cited by 30
“A total of 2,627 participants were recruited for the present study through online sampling using social media and e-mail snowballing, an effective and cost-efficient sampling method (Thornton et al., 2016; Topolovec-Vranic & Natarajan, 2016).”
Supporting survivors of sexual violence: protocol for a mixed-methods, co-research study of the role, funding and commissioning of specialist services provided by the voluntary sector in England
Combes, G., Damery, S. L., Gunby, C., Harlock, J., Isham, L., Jones, A., Maxted, F., Parmar, P., Schaub, J., Smith, D., et al. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035739 · Cited by 29
New dyads? The effect of social robots’ anthropomorphization on empathy towards human beings
Spaccatini, F., Corlito, G., & Sacchi, S. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107821 · Cited by 31
The inaccuracy of data from online surveys: A cautionary analysis
Agans, J. P., Schade, S. A., Hanna, S. R., Chiang, S., Shirzad, K., & Bai, S. (2023) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-023-01733-5 · Cited by 31
“…Mechanical Turk participant pool, etc.; Peer et al. 2021 ), but many researchers also recruit their participants directly online (e.g., Chung et al. 2019 ; Dermody 2022 ; Dworkin et al. 2016 ; Greenwood 2021 ; Howell 2019 ; Levi et al. 2021 ; Russomanno et al. 2019 ; Thornton et al. 2016 ).”
Impact of a Social Media Campaign on Reach, Uptake, and Engagement with a Free Web- and App-Based Physical Activity Intervention: The 10,000 Steps Australia Program
Rayward, A. T., Vandelanotte, C., Corry, K., Itallie, A. K. V., & Duncan, M. J. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16245076 · Cited by 31
“It is di ﬃ cult to compare numbers of impressions between di ﬀ erent social media advertising campaigns since they can vary by overall recruitment timeframe, target audience, advertisement delivery scheduling, and expenditure [10,21].”
BackgroundResult
Social Media as a Platform for Recruitment to a National Survey During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Feasibility and Cost Analysis
Green, H., Fernandez, R. S., & MacPhail, C. L. (2021) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/28656 · Cited by 29
“The success of these interventions has demonstrated the efficacy of social media as a suitable method for accessing participants [1,5,15-17].”
BackgroundMethod
Characteristics Associated With Depression, Anxiety, and Social Isolation in Adults With Spina Bifida
Showen, A., Copp, H. L., Allen, I. E., Baradaran, N., Liaw, A., & Hampson, L. A. (2020) · Urology · doi:10.1016/j.urology.2020.11.016 · Cited by 28
Sources of COVID-19-Related Information in People with Various Levels of Risk Perception and Preventive Behaviors in Taiwan: A Latent Profile Analysis
Wang, P., Chen, Y., Chang, Y., Wu, C.-F., Lu, W.-H., & Yen, C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18042091 · Cited by 27
“A systematic review on the study recruiting participants via Facebook reported that there appeared to be a bias towards people with a higher educational level [56].”
Background
Perception of adults toward electronic cigarettes: a cross-sectional study from Jordan
Barakat, M. M., Assaf, A. M., Alqudah, R., Thiab, S. H., Alhamed, M., Al-Obaidi, H. J., Jirjees, F., & Basheti, I. A. (2021) · Primary Health Care Research & Development · doi:10.1017/s1463423621000062 · Cited by 27
“However, nowadays in light of the published review (Thornton et al., 2016), the recruitment of a research sample using social media platforms is considered an efficient and cost-effective method.”
Background
Anxiety and Depression in Parents of Children Born with Esophageal Atresia: An International Online Survey Study
Wallace, V., Honkalampi, K. M., & Sheils, E. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2021.02.016 · Cited by 30
Ethical Issues in Social Media Recruitment for Clinical Studies: Ethical Analysis and Framework
Zimmermann, B. M., Willem, T., Bredthauer, C. J., & Buyx, A. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/31231 · Cited by 27
“Although the ability of many social media platforms to direct study advertisements toward defined target groups can be useful in addressing unknown patients, it is unclear how the underlying algorithms choose members of the target group [13,119].”
Practical Benefits, Challenges, and Recommendations on Social Media Recruitment: Multi-Stakeholder Interview Study
Goldman, N., Willem, T., Buyx, A., & Zimmermann, B. M. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/44587 · Cited by 26
“…to distribute their web-based surveys, which is in line with other literature on the benefits of social media recruitment for nonclinical studies [9-11 , In addition, some clinicians believed that social media recruitment would not yield representative samples most likely because clinical…”
Educating children and adolescents about vaccines: a review of current literature
Maisonneuve, A. R., Witteman, H. O., Brehaut, J., Dubé, È., & Wilson, K. R. (2018) · Expert Review of Vaccines · doi:10.1080/14760584.2018.1456921 · Cited by 26
Performance, Cost-Effectiveness, and Representativeness of Facebook Recruitment to Suicide Prevention Research: Online Survey Study
Lee, S., Torok, M. H., Shand, F., Chen, N. A., McGillivray, L., Burnett, A., Larsen, M. E., & Mok, K. (2020) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/18762 · Cited by 27
“Characteristics or populations that were most often reported to be overrepresented included younger participants [9,21,22], women [15,23], and those who were well educated [8,21,24].”
BackgroundInfluential
Is caring about the environment enough for sustainable mobility? An exploratory case study from South Tyrol (Italy)
Isetti, G., Ferraretto, V., Stawinoga, A. E., Gruber, M., & Valle, N. D. (2020) · Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.trip.2020.100148 · Cited by 25
Using Facebook to recruit to a national online survey investigating complementary medicine product use in pregnancy and lactation: A case study of method
Barnes, L. A. J., Barclay, L. M., McCaffery, K. J., Rolfe, M. I., & Aslani, P. (2020) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.07.011 · Cited by 25
A Mapping Study on the Internet and Suicide
Krysinska, K. E., Westerlund, M., Niederkrotenthaler, T., Andriessen, K., Carli, V., Hadlaczky, G., Till, B., & Wasserman, D. (2017) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000444 · Cited by 24
Differences in residents’ social impact perception of a cycling event based on the fear of the COVID-19 pandemic
Vegara-Ferri, J. M., Pallarés, J. G., & Sánchez, S. A. (2021) · European Sport Management Quarterly · doi:10.1080/16184742.2021.1903526 · Cited by 24
“and economy than other traditional methods (Thornton et al., 2016).”
Method
Facebook recruitment for research of children and parents during the COVID-19 pandemic
Skeens, M. A., Sutherland-Foggio, M. S., Damman, C., Gerhardt, C. A., & Akard, T. F. (2022) · Applied Nursing Research · doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2022.151574 · Cited by 24
Basking in detected vice: Outgroup immorality enhances self-view
Sacchi, S., Brambilla, M., & Graupmann, V. (2020) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430219895320 · Cited by 23
“However, as noted by Thornton et al. (2016), characteristics (e.g., gender, age, education) of samples recruited via Facebook are frequently unbalanced and there is a lack of environmental control during administration.”
Background
A New Remote Guided Method for Supervised Web-Based Cognitive Testing to Ensure High-Quality Data: Development and Usability Study
Leong, V., Raheel, K., Sim, J. Y., Kacker, K., Karlaftis, V. M., Vassiliu, C., Kalaivanan, K., Chen, S. A., Robbins, T. W., Sahakian, B. J., et al. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/28368 · Cited by 26
“Purely unsupervised web-based testing has the attendant advantages of reaching large sample sizes with a broad demographic at a relatively low cost per head [34,49,54,56-58].”
The use of Facebook for virtual asynchronous focus groups in qualitative research
Biedermann, N. (2017) · Contemporary Nurse · doi:10.1080/10376178.2017.1386072 · Cited by 23
“Indeed, a recent systematic review of studies that have used Facebook as a tool for study recruitment identified 110 unique studies (Thornton et al., 2016).”
Background
Evaluating Two Common Strategies for Research Participant Recruitment Into Autism Studies: Observational Study
Ahmed, K. L., Simon, A. R., Dempsey, J. R., Samaco, R. C., & Goin‐Kochel, R. P. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16752 · Cited by 22
“36 to $110 per completed participant [3].”
Background
Potential of Online Recruitment Among 15-25-Year Olds: Feasibility Randomized Controlled Trial
Hoffmann, S. H., Folker, A. P., Buskbjerg, M., Folker, M. P., Jezek, A. H., Svartá, D. L., Sølvhøj, I. N., & Thygesen, L. C. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/35874 · Cited by 22
Predictors of caregiver distress among spouses, adult children living with the person with dementia, and adult children not living with the person with dementia
Wawrziczny, É., Duprez, C., & Antoine, P. (2020) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12553 · Cited by 22
“It’s not black and white”
Crawford, S. B., Hokke, S., Nicholson, J. M., Zion, L., Lucke, J. C., Keyzer, P., & Hackworth, N. J. (2018) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-07-2017-0278 · Cited by 21
The aetiology of non-clinical narcissism: Clarifying the role of adverse childhood experiences and parental overvaluation
Nguyen, K. T., & Shaw, L. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109615 · Cited by 29
Facebook Recruitment Using Zip Codes to Improve Diversity in Health Research: Longitudinal Observational Study
Pechmann, C., Phillips, C., Calder, D., & Prochaska, J. J. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/17554 · Cited by 20
Exploring safety culture in the Finnish ambulance service with Emergency Medical Services Safety Attitudes Questionnaire
Venesoja, A., Lindström, V., Aronen, P., Castrén, M. K., & Tella, S. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Trauma Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13049-021-00960-9 · Cited by 21
Generalizability and representativeness: Considerations for internet-based research on substance use behaviors.
Borodovsky, J. T. (2022) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000581 · Cited by 27
Examining the relationship between alcohol consumption, psychological distress and COVID-19 related circumstances: An Australian longitudinal study in the first year of the pandemic
Mojica‐Perez, Y., Livingston, M., Pennay, A. E., & Callinan, S. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107439 · Cited by 21
Like, comment, tag, share: Facebook interactions in health research
Obamiro, K. O., West, S., & Lee, S. (2020) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2020.104097 · Cited by 21
Evaluating the effectiveness of a physical activity social media advertising campaign using Facebook, Facebook Messenger, and Instagram
Northcott, C., Curtis, R., Bogomolova, S., Olds, T., Vandelanotte, C., Plotnikoff, R. C., & Maher, C. A. (2021) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/tbm/ibaa139 · Cited by 21
A mobile health intervention (LifeBuoy App) to help young people manage suicidal thoughts: protocol for a mixed-methods randomized controlled trial
Han, J., McGillivray, L., Wong, Q. J., Werner-Seidler, A., Wong, I., Calear, A., Christensen, H., & Torok, M. (2020) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/23655 · Cited by 17
“Samples recruited by Facebook have been found to present similar representativeness to convention methods in achieving age and gender distribution and are usually less costly [53].”
MethodSelf-citation
Caregiver Burden Among Those Caring for Patients With Spina Bifida
Sadighian, M. J., Allen, I. E., Quanstrom, K., Breyer, B. N., Suskind, A. M., Baradaran, N., Copp, H. L., & Hampson, L. A. (2021) · Urology · doi:10.1016/j.urology.2021.03.020 · Cited by 20
Mental Health and Social Support Are Key Predictors of Resilience in German Women with Endometriosis during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Schwab, R. M., Stewen, K., Kottmann, T., Anić, K., Schmidt, M. W., Elger, T., Theis, S., Kalb, S. R., Brenner, W., & Hasenburg, A. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11133684 · Cited by 21
“However, a recent systematic review confirmed that samples recruited by Facebook were as representative as samples recruited via traditional methods [77].”
Background
The link between self‐compassion and psychotic‐like experiences: A matter of distress?
Scheunemann, J., Schlier, B., Ascone, L., & Lincoln, T. M. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12193 · Cited by 22
Affective and cognitive factors associated with hallucination proneness in the general population: the role of shame and trauma-related intrusions
Bortolon, C., & Raffard, S. (2019) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2019.1670152 · Cited by 19
“that Facebook is an effective and cost-efficient recruitment method to obtain representative samples (Thornton et al., 2016).”
Method
Online educational research with middle adolescent populations: Ethical considerations and recommendations
Mackenzie, E., Berger, N., Holmes, K., & Walker, M. (2020) · Research Ethics · doi:10.1177/1747016120963160 · Cited by 19
“This gender imbalance has been observed as a common recruitment bias in Facebook recruitment (Thornton et al., 2016), and future studies should consider how advertisements and images engage girls and boys differently.”
Background
Sustaining a career in general practice: Embodied work, inequality regimes, and turnover intentions of women working in general practice
Mayson, S. E., & Bardoel, A. (2021) · Gender Work and Organization · doi:10.1111/gwao.12659 · Cited by 19
Recommendations to encourage participation of individuals from diverse backgrounds in psychiatric genetic studies
MacDermod, C. M., Pettie, M. A., Carrino, E. A., Garcia, S. C., Padalecki, S., Finch, J. E., Sanzari, C. M., Kennedy, H., Pawar, P. S., Mcgough, M. M., et al. (2022) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32906 · Cited by 19
“More broadly, a systematic review suggested that Facebook is an effective and cost-efficient recruitment method to enroll participants of all ages, to any psychosocial, health, or medical research (Thornton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citation

Authors: Thornton, L., Batterham, P. J., Fassnacht, D. B., Kay-Lambkin, F., Calear, A. L., & Hunt, S.
Affiliations: UNSW Sydney (AU)
Australian National University (AU)
ORCID: Thornton, Louise
Batterham, Philip J.
Fassnacht, Daniel B.
Calear, Alison L.
Hunt, Sally
Venue: Internet Interventions
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2016-05
Volume: 4
Pages: 72-81
ISSN: 2214-7829 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.invent.2016.02.001
PMC: PMC6096238
OpenAlex: W2282737262
Cited by: 326
References: 115
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 2
FWCI: 4.28
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by-nc-nd
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Internet Interventions (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
NOVA (University of Newcastle Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
Funders: University of New South Wales
National Health and Medical Research Council
Topics: Social Sciences › Health › Social Media in Health Education
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Ethics in Clinical Research
Keywords: Facebook, participant recruitment, social networking sites, online recruitment, recruitment incentives, sample representativeness, health research, medical research, psychosocial research

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Recruiting for health, medical or psychosocial research using Facebook: Systematic review

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