The Content of Favorable and Unfavorable Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Found in Commonly Eaten Fish
Abstract
Changes in diet during the past century have caused a marked increase in consumption of saturated fatty acids and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with a concomitant decrease in the intake of n-3 PUFAs. Increased fish consumption has been shown to be the only realistic way to increase dietary quantities of beneficial long-chain n-3 PUFAs such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid and re-establish more balanced n-6:n-3 ratios in the diets of human beings. Our objective in this research was to characterize some of the relevant fatty acid chemistry of commonly consumed fish, with a particular focus on the four most commonly consumed farmed fish. To do this, 30 commonly consumed farmed and wild fish were collected from supermarkets and wholesalers throughout the United States. Fatty acid composition of samples from these fish was determined using gas chromatography. The 30 samples studied contained n-3 PUFAs ranging from fish having almost undetectable levels to fish having nearly 4.0 g n-3 PUFA per 100 g fish. The four most commonly farmed fish, Atlantic salmon, trout, tilapia, and catfish, were more closely examined. This analysis revealed that trout and Atlantic salmon contained relatively high concentrations of n-3 PUFA, low n-6:n-3 ratios, and favorable saturated fatty acid plus monounsaturated fatty acid to PUFA ratios. In contrast, tilapia (the fastest growing and most widely farmed fish) and catfish have much lower concentrations of n-3 PUFA, very high ratios of long chain n-6 to long chain n-3 PUFAs, and high saturated fatty acid plus monounsaturated fatty acid to PUFA ratios. Taken together, these data reveal that marked changes in the fishing industry during the past decade have produced widely eaten fish that have fatty acid characteristics that are generally accepted to be inflammatory by the health care community.
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Initial studies revealed a strong association between gut-microbiota-dependent phospholipid metabolism and atherosclerosis risks mediated by generation of the pro-atherosclerotic metabolite TMAO.
“Initial studies revealed a strong association between gut-microbiota-dependent phospholipid metabolism and atherosclerosis risks mediated by generation of the pro-atherosclerotic metabolite TMAO.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
The TMA/TMAO pathway represents a novel union between diet, gut microbiota, and both atherosclerosis and thrombosis risks.
“Recent work from our group has demonstrated, for the first time, that the trimethylamine (TMA)/trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) pathway represents a novel union between diet, gut microbiota, and both atherosclerosis and thrombosis risks82,96,156–159.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
TMAO is generated from dietary precursors that contain the TMA moiety, such as phosphatidylcholine, choline, and L-carnitine.
“TMAO is generated from dietary precursors that contain the TMA moiety such as phosphatidylcholine, choline, and L-carnitine.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
Increased plasma levels of small-molecule metabolites, including TMAO, predict increased risk of CVD in stable patients undergoing elective cardiac evaluation who subsequently experienced myocardial infarction, stroke or death.
“Using untargeted metabolomics as a discovery platform, increased plasma levels of small-molecule metabolites, including TMAO, were shown to predict an increased risk of CVD in stable patients undergoing elective cardiac evaluation who subsequently experienced a myocardial infarction, stroke or death158.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
In the untargeted metabolomics study by Wang et al., there were 18 unidentified peaks associated with major adverse cardiovascular events.
“In the untargeted metabolomics study by Wang et al., there were a total of 18 unidentified peaks that were found to be associated with major adverse cardiovascular events (refer to the supplement in ref. 153)158.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
Direct supplementation of TMAO or its dietary precursors choline or carnitine resulted in enhanced macrophage foam cell formation and atherosclerotic plaque development in aortic roots of atherosclerosis-prone apolipoprotein E−/− mice.
“direct supplementation of TMAO or its dietary precursors, choline158 or carnitine156,159, both resulted in enhanced macrophage foam cell formation and atherosclerotic plaque development in aortic roots of atherosclerosis-prone apolipoprotein E−/− mice.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
Beyond the three metabolites in the TMAO biochemical pathway, the remaining unknown metabolites demonstrated strong hazard ratios in unadjusted analysis.
“Moreover, beyond the three metabolites found to be in the TMAO biochemical pathway, the remaining unknown metabolites also demonstrated strong hazard ratios in unadjusted analysis.”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
The TMA/TMAO microbial-human metabolic pathway can generate disease-relevant metabolites that contribute to atherogenesis.
“Since the first studies demonstrating that the TMA/TMAO microbial-human metabolic pathway can generate disease-relevant metabolites that contribute to atherogenesis156–158, a multitude of pathophysiologic associations have now been linked with TMAO (FIG. 1).”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
Following ingestion of a TMA containing nutrient, distinct microbial enzyme systems participate in the generation of TMA, the precursor of TMAO.
“Following ingestion of a TMA containing nutrient (the choline moiety being the most abundant in a typical diet), distinct microbial enzyme systems participate in the generation of TMA, the precursor of TMAO158,171 (FIG. 5).”
From Dietary metabolism, the gut microbiome, and heart failure (2019) · cites this paper as [158]
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- Authors
- Weaver, K. L., Ivester, P., Chilton, J. A., Wilson, M. D., Pandey, P., & Chilton, F. H.
- Affiliations
- Wake Forest University Health Sciences (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chilton, Floyd H.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Dietetic Association
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-07
- Volume
- 108
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1178-1185
- ISSN
- 0002-8223 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2068523269
- Cited by
- 134
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 11.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Dietetic Association (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (T32 GM63485, T32GM063485)
- National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (P50AT0027820)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Aquaculture Nutrition and Growth
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food and Agricultural Sciences
- Keywords
- polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega-3 fatty acids, n-6/n-3 ratio, farmed fish, Atlantic salmon, trout, tilapia, catfish, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, dietary fatty acid intake, fish consumption
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Catfishes, Chromatography, Gas, Fishes, Food Analysis, Humans, Salmon, Species Specificity, Trout, Fatty Acids, Omega-3, Tilapia, Seafood, Aquaculture, Fatty Acids, Omega-6
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