Cited by 631Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesAdolescent Health and BehaviorsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Adolescent Maturity and the Brain: The Promise and Pitfalls of Neuroscience Research in Adolescent Health Policy

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Johnson, Sara B., Blum, Robert W., Giedd, Jay N.·2009·Journal of Adolescent Health

DOI 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016PMC PMC2892678

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Abstract

Longitudinal neuroimaging studies demonstrate that the adolescent brain continues to mature well into the 20s. This has prompted intense interest in linking neuromaturation to maturity of judgment. Public policy is struggling to keep up with burgeoning interest in cognitive neuroscience and neuroimaging. However, empirical evidence linking neurodevelopmental processes and adolescent real-world behavior remains sparse. Nonetheless, adolescent brain development research is already shaping public policy debates about when individuals should be considered mature for policy purposes. With this in mind, in this article we summarize what is known about adolescent brain development and what remains unknown, as well as what neuroscience can and cannot tell us about the adolescent brain and behavior. We suggest that a conceptual framework that situates brain science in the broader context of adolescent developmental research would help to facilitate research-to-policy translation. Furthermore, although contemporary discussions of adolescent maturity and the brain often use a deficit-based approach, there is enormous opportunity for brain science to illuminate the great strengths and potentialities of the adolescent brain. So, too, can this information inform policies that promote adolescent health and well-being.

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“The adolescent brain continues to mature well into the 20s (Johnson et al. 2009).”
Background
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Johnson, S. B., Sudhinaraset, M., & Blum, R. W. (2009) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558409353339 · Cited by 19
Self-citation
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“Furthermore, the immature (teenage) brain has shown to exhibit more pronounced axonal diffusion in the corpus callosum and longitudinal fasciculus (50, 51) following repetitive subconcussive head impacts compared to the mature brain (52), given that neural networks in the frontal cortex proliferate throughout adolesce…”
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“Longitudinal neuroimaging studies demonstrate that the adolescent brain continues to mature well into the 20s (Blakemore & Robbins, 2012; Johnson et al., 2009).”
Background
The Influence of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) on the Functional Impairment of Justice-Involved Adolescents: A Comparison of Baseline to Follow-Up Reports of Adversity
Duron, J. F., Williams‐Butler, A., Liu, F.-Y. Y., Nesi, D., Fay, K. P., & Kim, B. E. (2021) · Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice · doi:10.1177/15412040211016035 · Cited by 21
“Given our expanded understanding of adolescent development as one occurring into ones 20s (Johnson et al., 2009), although the adversities experienced at follow-up may not constitute traditional ACEs they remain potential sources of trauma.”
Background
Classification of Adolescent Psychiatric Patients at High Risk of Suicide Using the Personality Assessment Inventory by Machine Learning
Kim, K.-W., Lim, J. S., Yang, C.-M., Jang, S.-H., & Lee, S.-Y. (2021) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2021.0191 · Cited by 18
Prevalence and determinants of postpartum depression among adolescent mothers
Rahmadhani, W., Kusumastuti, K., & Chamroen, P. (2022) · International Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.53730/ijhs.v6n2.6422 · Cited by 20
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Tattersall, R. S., & McMahon, A.-M. (2012) · British Journal of Hospital Medicine · doi:10.12968/hmed.2012.73.10.552 · Cited by 18
Evidence for a Role of Adolescent Endocannabinoid Signaling in Regulating HPA Axis Stress Responsivity and Emotional Behavior Development
Lee, T. T.-Y., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2015) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2015.09.002 · Cited by 22
Culture as Habit, Habit as Culture: Instinct, Habituescence, Addiction
Cannizzaro, S., & Anderson, M. (2016) · Studies in applied philosophy, epistemology and rational ethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45920-2_18 · Cited by 18
Sucrose and fat content significantly affects palatable food consumption in adolescent male and female rats
Tenk, C. M., & Felfeli, T. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.07.016 · Cited by 18
Short- and Long-Term Pharmacologic Measures of HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Use Among High-Risk Men Who Have Sex With Men in HPTN 067/ADAPT
Velloza, J., Bacchetti, P., Hendrix, C. W., Murnane, P. M., Hughes, J. P., Li, M., Curlin, M. E., Holtz, T. H., Mannheimer, S., Marzinke, M. A., et al. (2019) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000002128 · Cited by 18
Components of executive function model regional prefrontal volumes.
Mace, R. A., Waters, A. B., Sawyer, K. S., Turrisi, T. B., & Gansler, D. A. (2019) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000563 · Cited by 19
Alcohol and other drug prevention for older adolescents: It's a no brainer
Debenham, J., Newton, N. C., Birrell, L., & Askovic, M. (2019) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.12914 · Cited by 18
Associations of developmental imbalance between sensation seeking and premeditation in adolescence and heavy episodic drinking in emerging adulthood
McCabe, C. J., Wall, T. L., Gonzalez, M. R., Meruelo, A. D., Eberson, S., Clark, D. B., Nooner, K. B., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2021) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14604 · Cited by 18
Transitional Safeguarding: The Case for Change
Holmes, D. (2021) · Practice · doi:10.1080/09503153.2021.1956449 · Cited by 17
“…criminal justice literature suggests that maturation involves physical, intellectual, social and emotional development (Prior et al. 2011), and many ‘higher executive functions’ – including verbal memory and impulse control – continue to develop into our 20 s (Johnson, Blum, and Giedd 2009, 216).”
Background
Leveraging Social Networks for the Assessment and Management of Neurological Patients
Dhand, A., Podury, A., Choudhry, N. K., Narayanan, S. S., Shin, M. C., & Mehl, M. R. (2022) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0042-1744532 · Cited by 18
Broken futures: young Afghan asylum seekers in the UK and in their country of origin
Gladwell, C., & Elwyn, H. (2012) · Cited by 17
Fun, Activities, and Social Context: Leveraging Key Elements of Recreation Programs to Foster Self-Regulation in Youth
Morgan, C., Sibthorp, J., & Wells, M. S. (2014) · Journal of Park and Recreation Administration · Cited by 17
Child abuse and neglect experts’ determination of when a child being left home alone constitutes child neglect
Jennissen, C. A., Evans, E. M., Oral, R., & Denning, G. M. (2018) · Injury Epidemiology · doi:10.1186/s40621-018-0144-0 · Cited by 17
“Many of these frontal lobe functions do not develop until late childhood and may not be fully developed until the mid-20s (Johnson et al., 2009; Tau & Peterson, 2010).”
Background
Adolescence effortful control as a mediator between family ecology and problematic substance use in early adulthood: A 16-year prospective study
Mun, C. J., Dishion, T. J., Tein, J., & Otten, R. (2017) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579417001742 · Cited by 17
“prefrontal cortex, continuously develop (Johnson et al., 2009; Sowell et al., 1999).”
Influential
Fear of Pain Across the Adult Life Span
Wright, C. D., & McNeil, D. W. (2020) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnaa390 · Cited by 17
“Decision-making abilities and executive functioning continue to mature well into the twenties [35], which could be associated with how one’s affective response toward painful experiences develops over time.”
Techno-legal Solutionism
Angel, M. P., & boyd, D. (2024) · ACM Symposium on Computer Science and Law (CSLAW) · doi:10.1145/3614407.3643705 · Cited by 17
“However, in the case of children on social media sites, the origin of the harm to youth mental health is not clear cut: it may be the site itself, the users of the site, or a combination of both.”
Background
Assessing the criminal capacity of children: a challenge to the capacity of mental health professionals
Pillay, A. L., & Willows, C. (2015) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2015.1040412 · Cited by 16
Staging Perspectives in Neurodevelopmental Aspects of Neuropsychiatry: Agents, Phases and Ages at Expression
Archer, T., Kostrzewa, R. M., Beninger, R. J., & Palomo, T. (2010) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/s12640-010-9162-6 · Cited by 16
“There is a plethora of evidence emphasizing the notion that the adolescent brain requires a great deal of further development to reach maturity with wide-ranging changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and mesolimbic regions (Giedd et al. 1999; Sowell et al. 2001; Güroğlu et al. 2009; Johnson et al. 2009; Stevens et al…”
Background
Behavioral Economics for Cost-Benefit Analysis: Benefit Validity When Sovereign Consumers Seem to Make Mistakes
Weimer, D. L. (2017) · Cited by 16
Protocol for measuring indoor exposure to coal fly ash and heavy metals, and neurobehavioural symptoms in children aged 6 to 14 years old
Zierold, K. M., Sears, C. G., Hagemeyer, A. N., Brock, G. N., Polivka, B. J., Zhang, C. H., & Sears, L. L. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038960 · Cited by 16
Assessing the Mental Health of Emerging Adults Through a Mental Health App: Protocol for a Prospective Pilot Study
Yunusova, A., Lai, J., Rivera, A. P., Hu, S., Labbaf, S., Rahmani, A. M., Dutt, N. D., Jain, R., & Borelli, J. L. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/25775 · Cited by 15
“These changes in mental health may, in part, be due to rapid shifts in physical and psychological development during brain maturation [10-12].”
Adolescents May Be Older Than We Think: Today 25 Is the New 18, or Is It?
Arnone, J. M. (2016) · International Journal of Celiac Disease · doi:10.12691/ijcd-2-2-4 · Cited by 16
“Brain structures and processes change throughout adolescence and across the life course much of the popular discussion about adolescent brain development has focused on the comparatively late maturation of the frontal lobes, although recent work has broadened the increasing “connectivity” of the brain [7].”
BackgroundInfluential
Firearms on College Campuses: Research Evidence and Policy Implications
Donohue, J. J. (2016) · Cited by 16
How issues of autonomy and consent differ between children and adults: Kids are not just little people
Reynolds, S. D., Grant-Kels, J. M., & Bercovitch, L. G. (2017) · Clinics in Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.08.010 · Cited by 16
Neurocognitive functioning and symptoms across levels of collision and contact in male high school athletes
Oldham, J. R., Howell, D. R., LANOIS, C. J., Berkner, P. D., Iverson, G. L., Mannix, R., & Meehan, W. P., III (2022) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2021-328469 · Cited by 15
The New Imperative: Reducing Adolescent-Related Violence by Building Resilient Adolescents
Ward, E., & Ashley, D. (2012) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.009 · Cited by 15
PrEP Implementation Science: State-of-the-Art and Research Agenda
Cáceres, C. F., Mayer, K. H., Baggaley, R. C., & O’Reilly, K. (2015) · Journal of the International AIDS Society · doi:10.7448/ias.18.4.20527 · Cited by 18
“Fifth, PLH organizations and some policy makers have feared competition with treatment in an era of decreased resources, although it now seems clear that the PrEP component of HIV response, in order to remain cost-effective, should be focused on small fractions of the population at very high risk, while different stra…”

Authors: Johnson, S. B., Blum, R. W., & Giedd, J. N.
Affiliations: Johns Hopkins University (US)
National Institute of Mental Health (US)
ORCID: Johnson, Sara B.
Blum, Robert W.
Giedd, Jay N.
Venue: Journal of Adolescent Health
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-09
Volume: 45
Issue: 3
Pages: 216-221
ISSN: 1054-139X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016
PMC: PMC2892678
OpenAlex: W2016854025
Cited by: 631
References: 47
Citations by year: 2026: 31 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 16
FWCI: 0.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Adolescent Health (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute of Mental Health (ZIAMH002794)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (K01DA027229)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Adolescent Health and Behaviors
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: adolescent brain development, neuromaturation, adolescent maturity, adolescent health policy, research-to-policy translation, cognitive neuroscience, neuroimaging, judgment, deficit approach, youth welfare
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Brain, Female, Health Policy, Humans, Male, Neurosciences, Research, Adolescent Development

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Adolescent Maturity and the Brain: The Promise and Pitfalls of Neuroscience Research in Adolescent Health Policy

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