The DOI matches its Crossref record; 87 of the 94 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 99 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Adolescent Neurodevelopment
Open accessAbstract
PURPOSE: The purpose of this article is to outline notable alterations occurring in the adolescent brain, and to consider potential ramifications of these developmental transformations for public policy and programs involving adolescents. METHODS: Developmental changes in the adolescent brain obtained from human imaging work are reviewed, along with results of basic science studies. RESULTS: Adolescent brain transformations include both progressive and regressive changes that are regionally specific and serve to refine brain functional connectivity. Along with still-maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated. At this time, the developmental shift from greater brain plasticity early in life to the relative stability of the mature brain is still tilted more toward plasticity than seen in adulthood, perhaps providing an opportunity for some experience-influenced sculpting of the adolescent brain. CONCLUSIONS: Normal developmental transformations in brain reward/aversive systems, areas critical for inhibitory control, and regions activated by emotional, exciting, and stressful stimuli may promote some normative degree of adolescent risk taking. These findings have a number of potential implications for public policies and programs focused on adolescent health and well-being.
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66 Not checked yet · 11 Own interpretation · 11 No basis given · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
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In the paper
“In contrast to the sometimes exaggerated ventral striatum responses to rewards, adolescents often show a reduced ventral striatal response when anticipating a reward or when shown cues predicting the reward (44; 46).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [44] Bjork, 2004, Incentive-elicited brain activation in adolescents: Similarities and differences from young adults, J Neurosci source
The Discussion reports reduced right ventral striatal activation in adolescents compared with young adults during anticipation of monetary gains. The finding concerns anticipation of responding for gains in this task, rather than all reward cues or settings; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Partly supportedcites [46] Geier, 2010, Immaturities in reward processing and its influence on inhibitory control in adolescence, Cereb Cortex sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (Developmental Differences in Reward-Cue Assessment) reports an attenuated adolescent ventral striatal response to incentive cues. But the Discussion (Developmental Differences in Reward Anticipation/Response Preparation) reports heightened, not reduced, activity during reward anticipation in this study. The paper notes a prior study finding reduced anticipatory activity, so the claim is supported for cues but not as a description of this paper’s own anticipation result. (LLM, conf=0.89)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Adolescent engagement in risky behaviors commonly occurs in social situations (58).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [58] Hardin, 2007, Incentive-related modulation of cognitive control in healthy, anxious, and depressed adolescents: Development and psychopathology related differences, J Child Psychol Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Background discusses adolescent risk-taking and cognitive development, but does not say where risky behaviors commonly occur. Searches for “social situations” and peer or social contexts found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.75)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“strategies that have not proved successful to date (58)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [58] Hardin, 2007, Incentive-related modulation of cognitive control in healthy, anxious, and depressed adolescents: Development and psychopathology related differences, J Child Psychol Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Background and Discussion link adolescent risk-taking to developing cognitive control, but do not assess attempts to prevent it. Searches for abstinence, social-skills and social-norms programs, and for prevention-program effectiveness found no passage addressing whether those strategies have succeeded. (LLM, conf=0.75)
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- Could not verify
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In the paper
“Although the human brain and the behavior it supports is far more complex than that of other species, relevance of research using simple mammalian models of adolescence is aided by considerable across-species similarities in behavior and biology seen between humans and other mammalian species.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
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In the paper
“These across-species similarities support the suggestion that certain neurobehavioral characteristics of adolescence may be tethered in part by biological roots embedded in the evolutionary past (see 18).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Spear, 1997, Neurobehavioral abnormalities following exposure to drugs of abuse during development
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Dissecting causal relationships and the precise morphological and molecular underpinnings of observed age differences typically require approaches and levels of analyses largely unavailable with imaging, but more amenable to study using animal models of adolescence.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Along with still maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Abstract > Results
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adolescent brain transformations include both progressive and regressive changes that are regionally specific and serve to refine brain functional connectivity.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Abstract > Results
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Normal developmental transformations in brain reward/aversive systems, areas critical for inhibitory control, and regions activated by emotional, exciting and stressful stimuli may promote some normative degree of adolescent risk-taking.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Abstract > Conclusions
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Studies conducted over the last several decades have revealed adolescence to be a time of particularly notable morphological and functional transformations in brain that, along with rising hormone levels and other biological changes, interact with cultural, economic and psychosocial forces to shape how adolescents think, feel, and behave (2).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Spear, 2010
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At this time, the developmental shift from greater brain plasticity early in life to the relative stability of the mature brain is still tilted more towards plasticity than seen in adulthood, perhaps providing an opportunity for some experience-influenced sculpting of the adolescent brain.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Abstract > Results
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Along with still maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Abstract > Results
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Developmental changes in these areas will be considered in conjunction with cognitive and behavioral data to support the suggestion that enhanced proclivities for risk-taking, sensation-seeking and alcohol/drug use often seen during adolescence are influenced in part by immature cognitive control capacities that can be overwhelmed by enhanced reactivity (and perhaps cross-reactivity) to social and”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Type of task, context and reward intensity might contribute to differences seen across studies (45), with adolescents for instance found to show greater ventral striatum responses to larger rewards but weaker responses to relatively small rewards (41).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] Galvan, 2010, Adolescent development of the reward system, Front Hum Neurosci
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Theories of adolescent brain development generally concur on the importance of delayed maturation of the PFC and other frontal regions for developmental immaturities in cognitive control, attentional regulation, response inhibition, and other relatively advanced cognitive functions (see 7 for review).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Casey, 2008, The adolescent brain, Dev Rev source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This overproduction and pruning is thought to ensure that appropriate connectivity is established, with neurons and synapses that fail to make appropriate connections being lost (21).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Rakic, 1994, Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: Implications for learning, memory, and mental illness
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This reward circuitry includes the DA neurotransmitter system and its projections to reward-relevant subcortical regions such as the ventral striatum (38).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] Doremus-Fitzwater, 2010, Motivational systems in adolescence: Possible implications for age differences in substance abuse and other risk-taking behaviors, Brain Cogn source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Development of frontal regions into late adolescence/early adulthood is thought to result in relatively late maturation of “top-down” control systems that gradually strengthening their control over early emerging, largely subcortical “bottom-up” systems that are highly responsive to rewarding and emotional stimuli (7).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Casey, 2008, The adolescent brain, Dev Rev source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Maturation of inhibitory control during adolescence is also associated with increasing involvement of frontal/PFC regions within networks linking these control regions with other areas (35;36).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] Rubia, 2008, Dissociated functional brain abnormalities of inhibition in boys with pure conduct disorder and in boys with pure attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Am J Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [36] Stevens, 2007, Functional neural networks underlying response inhibition in adolescents and adults, Behav Brain Res source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Novel stimuli, exciting and risky situations, as well as alcohol, nicotine and other drugs of potential abuse, tap into complex and ancient brain reward circuitry that is critical for seeking, finding and “consuming” survival-essential natural rewards such as food, water, warmth, sexual partners and other social stimuli (37).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Nesse, 1997, Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective, Science source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There are also major shifts in the speed and timing of information flow across the brain that influences functional connectivity across brain regions during adolescence (24).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] Fair, 2008, The maturing architecture of the brain's default network, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A reduced responsiveness to aversive stimuli during adolescence is often (50; 57; 58) although not always (59) evident behaviorally.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Cauffman, 2010, Age differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance on the Iowa gambling task, Dev Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [57] Steinberg, 2008, A social neuroscience perspective on adolescence, Trends Cogn Sci source
- Not checked yetcites [58] Hardin, 2007, Incentive-related modulation of cognitive control in healthy, anxious, and depressed adolescents: Development and psychopathology related differences, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Yet, attenuated activations of ventral striatum during reward anticipation is associated with greater risk-taking biases among adolescents (47) and with elevated levels of impulsivity among alcoholics but not a comparable group of adult control subjects (48).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Beck, 2009, Ventral striatal activation during reward anticipation correlates with impulsivity in alcoholics, Biol Psychiatry source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with adolescent-typical alterations in reward-relevant brain regions and reminiscent of the sometimes heightened ventral striatal response of adolescents to the receipt of rewards, behavioral sensitivity to rewards has often been reported to peak during adolescence.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Yet, attenuated activations of ventral striatum during reward anticipation is associated with greater risk-taking biases among adolescents (47) and with elevated levels of impulsivity among alcoholics but not a comparable group of adult control subjects (48).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Schneider, 2012, Risk taking and the adolescent reward system: A potential common link to substance abuse, Am J Psychiatry source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, greater amygdala activation to emotional faces was correlated with slower reaction times during performance of a response inhibition task that used these faces as stimuli (65).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Pine, 2001, Cortical brain regions engaged by masked emotional faces in adolescents and adults: An fMRI study, Emotion source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Data supporting a strong biological component to this enhanced reward responsivity have been obtained using simple animal models, with adolescent rats likewise often more sensitive than adults to the rewarding properties of stimuli that range from desirable tastes, social peers, and novelty, to drugs of abuse including cocaine, amphetamine, nicotine, and alcohol (for review, see 38).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] Doremus-Fitzwater, 2010, Motivational systems in adolescence: Possible implications for age differences in substance abuse and other risk-taking behaviors, Brain Cogn source
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For instance, sensitivity to negative feedback in a gambling task was found to be low during early-mid adolescence, and to increase gradually thereafter (50; 58).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Cauffman, 2010, Age differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance on the Iowa gambling task, Dev Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [58] Hardin, 2007, Incentive-related modulation of cognitive control in healthy, anxious, and depressed adolescents: Development and psychopathology related differences, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For instance, the amygdala of adolescents is activated less than that of adults in response to aversive outcomes (reward omission) (53).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Bjork, 2007, Developmental differences in posterior mesofrontal cortex recruitment by risky rewards, J Neurosci source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For instance, when both emotional and non-emotional versions of a risk-taking task were examined, adolescents exhibited more risk-taking than adults only under the emotional version of the task (68).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68] Gardner, 2005, Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study, Dev Psychol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Even sensitivity to a basic reward -- sweet substances – was likewise higher at this time (11-15 years of age) than during late adolescence and emerging adulthood (19-25 years) (52).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] Ernst, 2005, Amygdala and nucleus accumbens in responses to receipt and omission of gains in adults and adolescents, Neuroimage source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In some (e.g., 64; 65) but not all (e.g., 66) studies, adolescents were found to exhibit greater amygdala activation to emotional faces than adults (and children, when studied), data supporting the suggestion that adolescents show increased neural reactivity to emotional properties of social stimuli.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Hare, 2008, Biological substrates of emotional reactivity and regulation in adolescence during an emotional go-nogo task, Biol Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [65] Pine, 2001, Cortical brain regions engaged by masked emotional faces in adolescents and adults: An fMRI study, Emotion source
- Not checked yetcites [66] Dahl, 2004, Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities, Ann N Y Acad Sci source
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These data are consistent with other emerging evidence that neural responses to negative feedback may mature later than responses to positive feedback (55; 56).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] Gunther Moor, 2010, The heartbrake of social rejection: Heart rate deceleration in response to unexpected peer rejection, Psychol Sci source
- Not checked yetcites [56] Reyna, 2006, Risk and rationality in adolescent decision making: Implications for theory, practice, and public policy, Psychol Sci Public Interest source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Adolescent-typical insensitivities to aversive stimuli in the presence of greater reward sensitivity could contribute to the proclivity of adolescents to associate more benefit and less cost to alcohol and drug use, as well as other risk behaviors (63).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Monk, 2003, Adolescent immaturity in attention-related brain engagement to emotional facial expressions, Neuroimage source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In the case of alcohol, this adolescent insensitivity includes various intoxicating effects of alcohol such as motor incoordination, social impairment and sedation – effects likely serving as cues to moderate intake (62).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Millstein, 2002, Perceptions of risk and vulnerability, J Adolesc Health source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Adolescents often appear less “harm avoidant” than adults when indexed via neural responding to aversive stimuli, threats and penalties (53).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Bjork, 2007, Developmental differences in posterior mesofrontal cortex recruitment by risky rewards, J Neurosci source
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“For instance, reward seeking (indexed via self-report or sensitivity to positive feedback in a gambling task) was found to rise to peak in mid-adolescence (i.e., about 14-15 years) and then to gradually decline into adulthood (49; 50; 51).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Steinberg, 2009, Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting, Child Dev source
- Not checked yetcites [50] Cauffman, 2010, Age differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance on the Iowa gambling task, Dev Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [51] Desor, 1987, Longitudinal changes in sweet preferences in humans, Physiol Behav source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such hedonic shifts could encourage pursuit of, continued engagement in, and the escalation of risky and exciting activities, particularly when prior activities proved rewarding but without disastrous consequences.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet, even if adolescence does not represent a critical period for neuroplasticity, it is possible that environmental experiences might prove particularly critical for altering trajectories away from or toward certain problematic outcomes at this time of relatively rapid neural, behavioral and cognitive change.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For instance, in a study of professional musicians, the amount of white matter development in performance-relevant tract pathways was correlated with amount of time spent practicing, especially practice time during childhood and during early/mid-adolescence (78).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [78] McGee, 2005, Experience-driven plasticity of visual cortex limited by myelin and nogo receptor, Science source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“with mortality rates increasing 2-4 fold during the otherwise healthy adolescent period (88)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Recommendations for future research
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [88] Kessler, 2005, Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication, Arch Gen Psychiatry source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Recent data showing that sleep deprivation likewise shifts brain activation toward “hot cognitions” (85)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [85] Venkatraman, 2011, Sleep deprivation biases the neural mechanisms underlying economic preferences, J Neurosci source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Some of the synaptic pruning that is seen during adolescence appears in part experience-dependent (76), as does the process of myelination, with axonal myelination driven partly by the amount of electrical activity passing along to-be-myelinated axons (77).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [77] Bengtsson, 2005, Extensive piano practicing has regionally specific effects on white matter development, Nat Neurosci source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“and perhaps even rational under some circumstances (57)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [57] Steinberg, 2008, A social neuroscience perspective on adolescence, Trends Cogn Sci source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Some of the synaptic pruning that is seen during adolescence appears in part experience-dependent (76), as does the process of myelination, with axonal myelination driven partly by the amount of electrical activity passing along to-be-myelinated axons (77).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] Stevens, 2002, Adenosine: A neuron-glial transmitter promoting myelination in the CNS in response to action potentials, Neuron source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Basic science studies have also revealed evidence for 4-5 times higher rates of formation of new neurons during adolescence than in adulthood (80).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [80] Kozorovitskiy, 2003, Adult neurogenesis: A mechanism for brain repair?, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is evidence that some heightened developmental plasticity extends into adolescence, thereby potentially providing a relatively late opportunity for the brain to be customized to match the activities and experiences of the adolescent.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“given that adolescents are perhaps less likely to attribute negative outcomes to those experiences (57)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [57] Steinberg, 2008, A social neuroscience perspective on adolescence, Trends Cogn Sci source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“some degree of sensation-seeking and risk-taking is often normative during adolescence (87)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [87] Irwin, 1992, Correlates and predictors of risk-taking behavior during adolescence
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, finding that the adolescent brain is sensitive to environmental manipulations is not the same as showing that adolescence represents a critical period, or time of special vulnerability and opportunity, for brain plasticity.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Rises in gonadal steroids (e.g.,estrogen; testosterone) at puberty have been shown to influence maturation of brain regions critical for reproductive behavior, thereby helping to program sex-typical responses to gonadal hormones in adulthood (74).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] Gan, 2003, Synaptic dynamism measured over minutes to months: Age-dependent decline in an autonomic ganglion, Nat Neurosci source
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 36
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet, space and movement constraints limit task-related responses possible within scanners, making it challenging to relate these findings to the social and emotionally arousing situations in which adolescents often engage in risky behavior.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Brain development is a mix of expansion and regression. Many more brain cells specialized for processing and transmitting information (neurons) and their synaptic connections are produced than will ultimately be retained (19; 20).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Along with still maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Abstract > Results
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and other imaging technologies have proved valuable for detailing size of (3; 4) and connectivity across (5; 6) brain regions at different ages, as well as for indexing relative changes in regional activation patterns during performance of target risk-taking, decision-making or other tasks (see 7 for review).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Lenroot, 2006, Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source
- Not checked yetcites [4] Shaw, 2006, Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents, Nature source
- Not checked yetcites [5] Asato, 2010, White matter development in adolescence: A DTI study, Cereb Cortex source
boostedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The basics of brain structure and function arose millions of years ago, and the relative timing of regional brain development have been evolutionarily conserved as well (8).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Allman, 2000
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Common behavioral proclivities seen in human adolescents and their counterparts in other species include elevations in peer-directed social interactions along with occasional increases in fighting with parents (e.g., 9; 10; 11), increases in novelty-seeking, sensation-seeking and risk-taking (12; 13; 14; 15), and greater per occasion alcohol use (e.g., 16; 17).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Csikszentmihalyi, 1977, The ecology of adolescent activity and experience, J Youth Adolesc source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Primus, 1989, Pubertal-related changes influence the development of environment-related social interaction in the male rat, Dev Psychobiol source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Steinberg, 1989, Pubertal maturation and parent-adolescent distance: An evolutionary perspective
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Development of the brain is far from complete at the time of birth, with maturation continuing through childhood and adolescence, and even some age-related changes in brain organization and function (including the generation of modest numbers of brain cells) into adult life (1, for review).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] de Graaf-Peters, 2006, Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?, Early Hum Dev source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Synapses are energetically costly and declines in their numbers likely contribute to the increases in brain efficiency seen during adolescence, reflected by the declines in brain energy utilization seen through adolescence in humans and other species (22; 23).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Chugani, 1996, Neuroimaging of developmental nonlinearity and developmental pathologies
- Not checked yetcites [23] Tyler, 1942, The respiration of the developing brain, Am J Physiol source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Not all brain changes during adolescence are regressive, with some neurons continuing to grow processes and establish new synaptic connections (see 1, for review).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] de Graaf-Peters, 2006, Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?, Early Hum Dev source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Such increases in network cohesion may contribute to developmental changes in patterns of brain activation, with activation in task-relevant regions often becoming less diffuse and more focal (distinct) with development (31).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Durston, 2006, A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development, Dev Sci source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As examples of these marked transformations, in some reward-relevant areas there is a loss of up to 50% of some types of receptors that are necessary to respond to DA, whereas in other areas ongoing levels of DA activity may increase 2-7 fold during adolescence (39; 40).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Tarazi, 2000, Comparative postnatal development of dopamine D(1), D(2), and D(4) receptors in rat forebrain, Int J Dev Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [40] Andersen, 2002, Changes in the second messenger cyclic AMP during development may underlie motoric symptoms in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Behav Brain Res source
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cortical development generally proceeds in “waves”, with the timing of gray matter thinning occurring well prior to adolescence in cortical regions involved in basic sensory and motor function, whereas thinning continues throughout adolescence in prefrontal cortex [PFC] and other frontal cortical regions implicated in advanced cognitive functions.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Rather, contemporary views of brain maturation consider it to be a dynamic process by which different networks of functionally related regions become more strongly linked over time (24; 28; 29) via weakening connections between different networks while intensifying within-network connections, particularly those linking more distant network regions (30) – the later presumably aided by the”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] Fair, 2008, The maturing architecture of the brain's default network, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
- Not checked yetcites [28] Johnson, 2001, Functional brain development in humans, Nat Rev Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Stevens, 2009, Changes in the interaction of resting-state neural networks from adolescence to adulthood, Hum Brain Mapp source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“On the one hand, adolescents sometimes (41; 42; 43), although not always (44), show greater activation in ventral striatum while receiving rewards than do children or adults.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Galvan, 2006, Earlier development of the accumbens relative to oribitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents, J Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [42] Cohen, 2010, A unique adolescent response to reward prediction errors, Nat Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [43] Van Leijenhorst, 2010, Adolescent risky decision-making: Neurocognitive development of reward and control regions, Neuroimage source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These processes of myelination and synaptic pruning help to reconfigure brain connectivity into the adult form and are thought to contribute to the developmental “thinning” that occurs in the neocortex”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although myelination begins early in life and continues into adulthood, its production escalates notably during adolescence (25), thereby speeding information flow across distant regions and magnifying their impact (26).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] Markham, 2004, Experience-driven brain plasticity: Beyond the synapse, Neuron Glia Biol source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although myelination begins early in life and continues into adulthood, its production escalates notably during adolescence (25), thereby speeding information flow across distant regions and magnifying their impact (26).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] Lu, 2009, Morphological development of the brain: What has imaging told us
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The thinning of cortical “gray matter” regions enriched in neurons, synapses and support cells with maturation may be related not only to declines in the number of synaptic processes but also to increases in myelinated “white matter” tracts that pass underneath cortical gray matter, decreasing relative gray matter to white matter volume (27).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Tau, 2010, Normal development of brain circuits, Neuropsychopharmacology source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although such regressive processes are most prevalent during early brain development, they continue to some extent throughout life, with synaptic pruning in particular being a hallmark of the brain transformations of adolescence.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Rakic, 1994, Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: Implications for learning, memory, and mental illness
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence for delayed maturation of frontal regions is evident in terms of cortical thinning (33), as well as via switches from more diffuse to greater focal activation of frontal regions during performance on tasks requiring inhibitory self-control (31; 34).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Gogtay, 2004, Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
- Not checked yetcites [31] Durston, 2006, A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development, Dev Sci source
- Not checked yetcites [34] Casey, 1997, A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task, J Cogn Neurosci source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pruning during adolescence is highly specific and can be pronounced, resulting in a loss of close to 50% of the synaptic connections in some regions, but with little decline in others (21).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Rakic, 1994, Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: Implications for learning, memory, and mental illness
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, stressful and emotionally arousing situations have been shown to attenuate activity in PFC and other frontal regions (32), while at the same time increasing activity in subcortical regions modulating emotional reactivity such as the amygdala, as discussed later.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Liston, 2009, Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Likewise, a region of frontal cortex that monitors penalties and conflict was activated by the threat of both mild and high penalties in adults, but only by the high penalty in adolescents, data suggesting that this area is less sensitive to penalties in adolescents than adults (54).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [54] Crone, 2008, Neural mechanisms supporting flexible performance adjustment during development, Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Social peers seem particularly effective in inducing “hot” emotional states during adolescence, with adolescents showing markedly more risk-taking than adults when tested in a computerized risk-taking task in the presence of peers, but not when individuals at both ages were tested alone (69).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [69] Gutman, 2003, Persistent central nervous system effects of an adverse early environment: Clinical and preclinical studies, Physiol Behav source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For instance, adolescent rats are often less sensitive than adults to aversive properties of both non-drug and drug stimuli, with the latter emerging at higher doses of the same drugs that, at lower doses, they conversely find more reinforcing than adults (cocaine, amphetamine, nicotine and alcohol)(38; 60; 61).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] Doremus-Fitzwater, 2010, Motivational systems in adolescence: Possible implications for age differences in substance abuse and other risk-taking behaviors, Brain Cogn source
- Not checked yetcites [60] Torres, 2008, Enhanced vulnerability to the rewarding effects of nicotine during the adolescent period of development, Pharmacol Biochem Behav source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Spear, 2005, Low dose effects in psychopharmacology: Ontogenetic considerations, Nonlinearity Biol Toxicol Med source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Type of task, context and reward intensity might contribute to differences seen across studies (45), with adolescents for instance found to show greater ventral striatum responses to larger rewards but weaker responses to relatively small rewards (41).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Galvan, 2006, Earlier development of the accumbens relative to oribitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents, J Neurosci source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, although the rational decision making of adolescents reaches adult-typical levels by mid-adolescence, this capacity can be reduced under stressful, emotionally charged and arousing circumstances (49) – a phenomenon called “hot cognitions” (see 67).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Steinberg, 2009, Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting, Child Dev source
- Not checked yetcites [67] Figner, 2009, Affective and deliberative processes in risky choice: Age differences in risk taking in the Columbia card task, J Exp Psyhol Learn Mem Cogn source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Such beneficial effects have been seen following exposures during adolescence (82) and in adulthood (83), although studies have yet to include age comparisons to determine whether the brain of the adolescent is more sensitive to these effects than the adult brain.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [82] Kim, 2004, Age-dependence of the effect of treadmill exercise on cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus of rats, Neurosci Lett source
- Not checked yetcites [83] Pfefferbaum, 1994, Self-report study of impulsive and delinquent behavior in college students, J Adolesc Health source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even modest adjustments of developmental trajectories that are slightly off-track during adolescence may yield substantially more benefit than waiting until those trajectories have diverged considerably later in life.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Recommendations for future research
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The environmental conditions an adolescent experiences are important.
- Rests on an assumption: The adolescent brain, as it matures, is responsive to such experiences.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The balance between plasticity and stability is tilted towards plasticity early in life -- a time when there are many opportunities for the brain to be sculpted by experiences – ranging from initial sensory experiences to early nutrient exposure/restriction or developmental adversities (70; 71; 72). At maturity, the balance is shifted toward greater stability of neural circuits, although the”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Hensch, 2004, Critical period regulation, Annu Rev Neurosci source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Taylor, 2007, Developmental programming of obesity in mammals, Exp Physiol source
- Not checked yetcites [72] Bavelier, 2010, Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: From molecular to behavioral interventions, J Neurosci source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, converging data and emerging consensus in certain instances may be sufficient to help inform adolescent policy discussions, as illustrated below.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Attenuated aversive consequences in the face of a potential for greater rewarding benefits could combine with genetic and environmental risk factors to promote relatively high levels of reward “consumption”, leading to problematic involvements with alcohol, other drugs, or other rewarding or risky stimuli.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“evidence for a partially biologically-driven phase shift towards delayed sleep onset and later awakening that usually leads to some sleep deprivation during the school week (86)”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [86] Carskadon, 1993, Association between puberty and delayed phase preference, Sleep source
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For some adolescents, adjustment problems may evolve into psychological disorders, with rises in the incidence of a variety of disorders during adolescence (89).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Recommendations for future research
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89]
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, risk-taking has been viewed as “one dimension of the drive for thrills and excitement” (84, p.296).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84] Steinberg, 2009, Are adolescents less mature than adults?: minors' access to abortion, the juvenile death penalty, and the alleged APA “flip-flop”, Am Psychol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Synapses in the adolescent brain are notably more dynamic than they are in adulthood, with axons growing and retracting and new synapses formed and others eliminated at notably greater rates than seen in the mature brain (75; 76).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is a leap from the science of adolescent brain development to public policy, particularly given that most relevant data are derived from human imaging studies that largely do not address causal or mechanistic relationships, or from research using simple animal models whose relevance to human adolescents often remains to be established.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Myelination is thought to be one of the negative regulators of plasticity, raising the possibility that experience-related increases in myelination may serve to stabilize relevant axonal pathways at the cost of their further plasticity (79).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [79] He, 2007, Neurogenesis decreases during brain maturation from adolescence to adulthood, Pharmacol Biochem Behav source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adolescents often seem to view rewarding and aversive stimuli differently than do adults, showing a shift toward enhanced sensitivity to rewards but attenuated aversive sensitivities that may extend to alcohol and other drugs.”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Formation of modest amounts of new neurons throughout life is restricted to a few brain regions, but is thought to be important for some forms of learning, for repair after brain damage, and as one possible mediator of beneficial effects of exercise and enriched environments (e.g., 81).”
§ Adolescent Neurodevelopment > Recent advances in understanding of adolescent brain development > Synaptic pruning and myelination
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Thiriet, 2008, Environmental enrichment during adolescence regulates gene expression in the striatum of mice, Brain Res source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents have enhanced sensitivity to strong rewards.
“evidence for enhanced sensitivity to strong rewards during adolescence”
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents have attenuated aversive sensitivity.
“adolescent-associated attenuations in aversive sensitivity”
The paper relies on this without support.
The surrounding context strongly influences how adolescents behave.
“Context plays a particularly dramatic role in influencing adolescent behavior”
The paper relies on this without support.
Stressful, exciting, or emotionally charged situations boost activity in subcortical areas that regulate responses to social-emotional and rewarding cues.
“stressful, exciting and emotionally arousing circumstances not only increasing activity in subcortical regions modulating reactivity to socioemotional and rewarding stimuli”
The paper relies on this without support.
Such situations also reduce activity in frontal cortical areas essential for reasoning and cognitive control.
“but also attenuating activity in regions of the frontal cortical critical for logical thinking and cognitive control”
The paper relies on this without support.
This fosters 'hot cognitions' and can contribute to risky behavior.
“thereby promoting “hot cognitions” and potentially leading to risky activities”
The paper relies on this without support.
Typical adolescent thinking and behavior are partly rooted in neurobiology.
“Adolescent-typical ways of thinking and behaving appear in part neurobiologically-based.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A large number of young people go through adolescence without much difficulty, showing limited risk-taking and few serious negative outcomes.
“Many youth traverse adolescence relatively easily, with their risk-taking limited and without notable adverse consequences”
The paper relies on this without support.
For others, choices made during adolescence lead to serious outcomes such as long-term substance abuse, imprisonment, or death.
“for other individuals, adolescent behavioral choices have severe consequences, including lasting alcohol/drug abuse, incarceration, or even death”
The paper relies on this without support.
It remains largely unknown how adolescent brain development shapes individual differences over adolescence, or how environmental experiences contribute to resilience or vulnerability in particular adolescents.
“Little is known of how development of the adolescent brain influences expression of individual differences across the course of adolescence, nor of the role of environmental experiences in the emergence of resiliencies and vulnerabilities among individual adolescents.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The environmental conditions an adolescent experiences are important.
“environmental circumstances of the adolescent matter”
The paper relies on this without support.
The adolescent brain, as it matures, is responsive to such experiences.
“the maturing brain during adolescence is sensitive to these experiences”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Drug exposure during adolescence is associated with more chronic and intensive use and greater risk of a substance use disorder than is initiation at older ages.167,169–172”
From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [167]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Normal adolescent-specific behaviours (eg, risk-taking, novelty-seeking, and high sensitivity to peer pressure) increase the propensity to experiment with legal and illegal drugs,167 which might reflect the incomplete development of brain regions (eg, myelination of frontal lobe regions) that are involved in the processes of executive control and motivation.168”
From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [167]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Experimentation, as well as the process of addiction, most often starts in adolescence,166 a period during which the brain undergoes important developmental changes.167”
From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [167]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“since the adolescent brain is sensitive to be influenced by environment and modifiable lifestyle behaviors such as PA [21,22].”
Citations
Cites
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593 · Cited by 20,391
Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., Nugent, T. F., Herman, D. H., Clasen, L. S., Toga, A. W., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101 · Cited by 5,604 · cited 1×
“Evidence for delayed maturation of frontal regions is evident in terms of cortical thinning (33), as well as via switches from more diffuse to greater focal activation of frontal regions during performance on tasks requiring inhibitory self-control (31; 34).”
BackgroundCasey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Hare, T. A. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1440.010 · Cited by 3,345
Cell death during development of the nervous system
Oppenheim, R. W. (1991) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.14.030191.002321 · Cited by 3,084
Cognitive and affective development in adolescence
Steinberg, L. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005 · Cited by 2,978
Toward discovery science of human brain function
Biswal, B. B., Mennes, M., Zuo, X.-N., Gohel, S., Kelly, C., Smith, S. M., Beckmann, C. F., Adelstein, J. S., Buckner, R. L., Colcombe, S., et al. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0911855107 · Cited by 2,970
Gardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2005) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625 · Cited by 2,218
Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging
Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001 · Cited by 1,863
Casey, B. J., Getz, S., & Galvan, A. (2008) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.003 · Cited by 1,810
Adolescent Brain Development: A Period of Vulnerabilities and Opportunities. Keynote Address
DAHL, R. E. (2004) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1308.001 · Cited by 1,667
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis
Koob, G. F., & Volkow, N. D. (2016) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(16)00104-8 · Cited by 3,698
Nicotine and the adolescent brain
Yuan, M., Cross, S. J., Loughlin, S. E., & Leslie, F. M. (2015) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp270492 · Cited by 623
Effects of adolescent alcohol consumption on the brain and behaviour
Spear, L. P. (2018) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2018.10 · Cited by 519
Self-citationSteinberg, L., Icenogle, G., Shulman, E. P., Breiner, K., Chein, J., Bacchini, D., Chang, L., Chaudhary, N., Giunta, L. D., Dodge, K. A., et al. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12532 · Cited by 514
Beyond stereotypes of adolescent risk taking: Placing the adolescent brain in developmental context
Römer, D., Reyna, V. F., & Satterthwaite, T. D. (2017) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2017.07.007 · Cited by 466
Metadata
- Authors
- Spear, L. P.
- Affiliations
- Binghamton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Spear, Linda Patia
- ORCID
- Spear, Linda Patia
- Venue
- Journal of Adolescent Health
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-02
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- S7-S13
- ISSN
- 1054-139X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3982854
- OpenAlex
- W4255839518
- Semantic Scholar
- 188949c981b64e22a98522bf71ce4dd9d6013e0c
- Cited by
- 744
- References
- 94
- Citations by year
- 2026: 71 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 75 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 8
- FWCI
- 2.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Adolescent Health (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- NIH (U01 AA019972, P50 AA017823, R01 AA018026, R01 AA017355, R01 AA 016887)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Keywords
- adolescent brain development, functional connectivity, inhibitory control, reward sensitivity, aversive stimuli, neuroplasticity, emotion regulation, risk-taking, adolescent health policy, youth welfare
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Brain, Brain Mapping, Humans, Public Policy, Reward, Risk-Taking, Harm Reduction, Adolescent Development, Neuroimaging
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-04, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-04 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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