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Spatiotemporal patterns of lithium mining and environmental degradation in the Atacama Salt Flat, Chile
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“Furthermore, the chemicals used for precipitation and the waste produced by this process have raised many socioenvironmental concerns (Anlauf, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Dorn et al., 2020).”
From A review of technologies for direct lithium extraction from low Li+ concentration aqueous solutions (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“a study in the Salar de Atacama, Chile, has found fast expansion of lithium mining operations to have a strong correlation with the ongoing environmental degradation in the area (Liu et al. 2019).”
From The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al. 2019
In the citing paper
“While lithium extraction may be promoted as good for the environment and for certain economies, we are already aware that there have been negative impacts, both environmental and social, associated with the development of this sector in the region (Liu etal. 2019; Marchegiani etal. 2018, 2020).”
From The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al. 2019
In the citing paper
“Lithium mining has significantly increased over the last two decades, quadrupling the surface area of its operations in the SdA from 20.54 km 2 in 1997 to 80.53 km 2 in 2017 (Liu et al., 2019).”
From Mining indigenous territories: Consensus, tensions and ambivalences in the Salar de Atacama (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al., 2019
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Cited by
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Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines
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A global-scale data set of mining areas
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Interdependencies of lithium mining and communities sustainability in Salar de Atacama, Chile
Liu, W., & Agusdinata, D. B. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120838 · Cited by 192
Self-citationA review of technologies for direct lithium extraction from low Li+ concentration aqueous solutions
Murphy, O., & Haji, M. N. (2022) · Frontiers in Chemical Engineering · doi:10.3389/fceng.2022.1008680 · Cited by 157
“Furthermore, the chemicals used for precipitation and the waste produced by this process have raised many socioenvironmental concerns (Anlauf, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Dorn et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialSalt to conserve: a review on the ecology and preservation of hypersaline ecosystems
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Lithium in the Green energy transition: the quest for both sustainability and security
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“Environmentalists argue that habitats of species such as Andean flamingoes are disrupted by mining operations [71].”
BackgroundHarvesting Lithium: water, brine and the industrial dynamics of production in the Salar de Atacama
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“…affects the hydrogeological systems with 73 wetland and lake ecosystems at the Salar de Atacama but these direct and indirect effects of brine pumping 74 are only measurable by assessing the hydrogeology of these salt flats (Liu et al., 2019; Liu and Agusdinata, 75 2021; Marazuela et al., 2019).”
BackgroundReich, R., Slunitschek, K., Danisi, R. M., Eiche, E., & Kolb, J. (2023) · Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review · doi:10.1080/08827508.2022.2047041 · Cited by 120
“To avoid redox-reactions, NaCl is an ideal reagent to recover LiCl and NaFePO4 and finally to precipitate Li2CO3 in an acid-free procedure (Liu et al. 2019c).”
MethodCarr-Wilson, S., Pattanayak, S. K., & Weinthal, E. S. (2024) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103672 · Cited by 108
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Climate Change and Lithium Mining Influence Flamingo Abundance in the Lithium Triangle
Gutiérrez, J. S., Moore, J. N., Donnelly, J. P., Dorador, C., Navedo, J. G., & Senner, N. R. (2022) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.2388 · Cited by 96
“In addition to our findings, other studies have already indicated that lithium mining is impacting the livelihoods of local people across the Lithium Triangle [29,31].”
ResultTowards more sustainable brine extraction in salt flats: Learning from the Salar de Atacama
Marazuela, M. A., Vázquez-Suñé, E., Ayora, C., & García-Gil, A. (2020) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135605 · Cited by 82
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The Power of Silk Technology for Energy Applications
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Oro blanco: assembling extractivism in the lithium triangle
Soto-Hernández, D., & Newell, P. J. (2022) · The Journal of Peasant Studies · doi:10.1080/03066150.2022.2080061 · Cited by 83
Concerns about lithium extraction: A review and application for Portugal✰
Chaves, C., Pereira, E., Ferreira, P., & Dias, A. G. (2021) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2021.100928 · Cited by 65
Mining indigenous territories: Consensus, tensions and ambivalences in the Salar de Atacama
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“This is significant because, despite very recent independent scientific attention (e.g. Liu et al. 2019) the Salar's ecological present is still a matter of fragmentation and disorder.”
BackgroundCritical minerals for electric vehicles: a telecoupling review
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“While lithium extraction may be promoted as good for the environment and for certain economies, we are already aware that there have been negative impacts, both environmental and social, associated with the development of this sector in the region (Liu et al. 2019; Marchegiani et al. 2018, 2020).”
BackgroundLithium brine mining affects geodiversity and Sustainable Development Goals
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“Particularly after the new millennium, high freshwater and underground water uses of the production facilities were scrutinised by the communities who reside close-by or share overlapping territories with resource frontiers (Prieto, 2016; Agusdinata et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2019).”
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Hybrid vigor: Why hybrids with sustainable biofuels are better than pure electric vehicles
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“…impacts of lithium mining, although there are significant concerns about the impacts on salt-lake ecosystems, climate, hydrology and communities (e.g. Liu et al. 2019; Liu and Agusdinata 2020; Marazuela et al. 2020), as well as the extensive manufacturing requirements (e.g. Vandepaer et al. 2017).”
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“…are interconnected and hydrodynamic rather than static, so concerns remain about the potential depletion of fresh groundwater flowing into salt flats in place of pumped brine (Agusdinata et al., 2018; Alam & Sepúlveda, 2022; Liu et al., 2019; Liu & Agusdinata, 2021; Schomberg & Bringezu, 2023).”
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“● Post-viral arthralgia (Liu et al., 2019; Tappe et al., 2017) ● Lyme disease (Speldewinde, Slaney, and Weinstein, 2015; Stanek,”
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WATER MINING AND EXTRACTIVISM OF THE SALAR DE ATACAMA, CHILE
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“Recent studies with satellite images and spectroradiometry show the increase in the loss of vegetation in the Salar in the last 20 years as a result of the extraction of its brines [40], [41].”
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“The shortcomings of the current way of understanding the functioning andwater balances of the salt flats and ecosystems and the impact of lithium mining have been criticized and demonstrated (SMA, 2016; First Environmental Court, 2019; Liu et al., 2019; DGA, 2021a; Gutiérrez et al., 2022).”
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Water footprint of battery-grade lithium production in the Salar de Atacama, Chile
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Water legislation in the context of lithium mining in Argentina
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“This results in serious health problems due to the expansion of lithium and coal mining [60].”
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“The saline ecosystems where lithium is found often have unique biodiversity value (Gajardo & Red (cid:1) on, 2019), and lithium extraction is a major contributor to local environmental degradation (Liu et al., 2019).”
Will electro-mobility encourage injustices? The case of lithium production in the Argentine Puna
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The COOL Process: A Holistic Approach Towards Lithium Recycling
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Collado, G. A., Torres‐Díaz, C., Vidal, M. A., & Valladares, M. A. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12060791 · Cited by 9
“Recent studies indicate that significant environmental degradation related to mining activity has occurred in the saltpan over the last 20 years [25,26].”
BackgroundEvolution of the Surface Area of Critical Lagoon Systems in the Salar de Atacama
Ignacio Guzmán, J., Retamal, C., Faúndez, P., & Joaquín Jara, J. (2022) · Natural Resources Research · doi:10.1007/s11053-022-10070-7 · Cited by 8
“During the past years, environmental concerns have emerged regarding the impact that the exploitation of lithium and other products has had on water resources in these areas (Collazo Urrutia, 2017; Gutiérrez et al., 2018; Jerez Henrı́quez, 2018; Liu et al., 2019; Baspineiro et al., 2020).”
BackgroundEndl, A., Gottenhuber, S., & Gugerell, K. (2023) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2023.101320 · Cited by 10
“…2013; Poelzer et al., 2022a; Poelzer et al., 2022b; Lesser et al., 2022; Boutilier, 2021), environmental degradation (Cabernard and Pfister, 2022; Liu et al., 2019; Sonter et al., 2020; Murguía et al., 2016), competing interests, and policy incoherence and/or inconsistency with other policy…”
Roa, D., Ståle Navrud, A., & Rosendahl, K. E. (2023) · Resource and Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.reseneeco.2023.101389 · Cited by 8
Valladares, M. A., Fabres, A. A., Collado, G. A., Sáez, P. A., & Méndez, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2022.869626 · Cited by 8
“…during the last 20 years, there has been a significant degradation of saltpan ecosystems, and these changes have been reflected in a decline in vegetation cover, an increase in temperature, a decrease in soil moisture and an intensification of drought conditions in these systems (Liu et al., 2019).”
BackgroundLithium—Occurrence and Exposure—A Review
Sager, M. (2025) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics13070567 · Cited by 8
“The concentrated brine is then transported to Antofagasta to produce Li 2 CO 3 [10].”
InfluentialM․, R. B., & Argento, M. (2025) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2025.101724 · Cited by 13
Solid–liquid extraction of lithium chloride with a simple and flexible heteroditopic receptor
Mimuro, T., Yoshino, S., Hirasawa, M., & Kondo, S. (2025) · Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/bulcsj/uoaf002 · Cited by 6
Beyond carbon: Environmental and social impacts of Japan's vehicle electrification transition
Rinawati, D. I., Keeley, A. R., Itsubo, N., & Managi, S. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125509 · Cited by 6
Density Constrains Environmental Impacts of Fluid Abstraction in Closed‐Basin Lithium Brines
Corkran, D., Boutt, D. F., Munk, L., Moran, B., McKnight, S., Jenckes, J., & Kirshen, A. (2025) · Water Resources Research · doi:10.1029/2024wr039511 · Cited by 8
“While conflicting studies by sustainability researchers (Liu et al., 2019) and conservation biologists (Gutiérrez et al., 2022) correlate wetland impacts with brine abstraction, they do not demonstrate a causal relationship, making those studies incapable of differentiating concurrent climate and…”
Grimal, L., Loreto, I. D., Burger, N., & Troussier, N. (2021) · doi:10.21428/bf6fb269.2ee80cf1 · Cited by 6
“To illustrate this point, we make a short focus on the example of lithium, a material coming mainly from South America, more precisely from Chile (38% of the world’s reserves) [17].”
BackgroundComber, R., & Eriksson, E. (2023) · doi:10.21428/bf6fb269.9fcdd0c0 · Cited by 18
Smart clothing in communication technology—recent development
Kothawale, A. S., Mohite, V. S., Darade, M. M., Deshmukh, S., Mondal, M. I. H., & Pawar, S. H. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15471-3.00001-7 · Cited by 6
Derlindati, E. J., Arengo, F., Michelutti, M. P., Romano, M. C., Sosa, H., Ortiz, E. P., Rocha, O., Jahn, A. E., Chanampa, M. M., & Barberis, I. M. (2024) · Bird Conservation International · doi:10.1017/s0959270924000273 · Cited by 7
“Mining lithium impacts wetlands directly in terms of habitat loss, conversion, and degradation (Garcés and Álvarez 2020; Liu et al. 2019; Sticco 2021), and sustained extraction of groundwater and surface water will likely affect hydrological balance, chemical composition, and ultimately the rich…”
From devastation to restoration: Charting the course towards sustainable mining practices
Yu, H., Zahidi, I., Fai, C. M., & Liang, D. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126660 · Cited by 6
Participatory Democratic Innovations in Southeast Europe
Fiket, I., Markov, Č., Ilić, V., & Draško, G. P. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003426103 · Cited by 9
Link, A., Marinova, S., Roche, L., Coroamă, V., Hinkers, L., Borchardt, D., & Finkbeiner, M. (2025) · Water · doi:10.3390/w17223311 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Liu, W., Agusdinata, D. B., & Myint, S. W.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Agusdinata, Datu B.
- Venue
- International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-08
- Volume
- 80
- Pages
- 145-156
- ISSN
- 0303-2434 (ISSN-L)
- 1569-8432
- OpenAlex
- W2943645630
- Cited by
- 162
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 141.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Geology and Environmental Impact Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Mining and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental and Biological Research in Conflict Zones
- Keywords
- lithium mining, environmental degradation, spatiotemporal variation, NDVI decline, land surface temperature, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, drought, lithium battery industry, mining impacts, national reserves
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