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Cited by 62Extractivism and Socioeconomic IssuesMining and Resource ManagementIndigenous Cultures and History

Mining indigenous territories: Consensus, tensions and ambivalences in the Salar de Atacama

Open access
Lorca, Mauricio, Olivera Andrade, Manuel, Escosteguy, Melisa, Köppel, Jonas, Scoville-Simonds, Morgan, Hufty, Marc·2022·The Extractive Industries and Society
DOI 10.1016/j.exis.2022.101047
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Abstract

Lithium mining in Chile's Salar de Atacama (SdA) has a relatively long and controversial history, especially when it comes to the local Indigenous peoples. In this context, this paper looks at the ways mining activities, and different visions of territory and indigeneity co-produce each other in the particular context of the SdA. For this, we use historical and ethnographic methods and draw on studies in anthropology and geography. We aim to escape simplistic images of Indigenous peoples’ reactions to mining as reflecting victimhood, resistance, or strategic pragmatism, and show instead how individuals and groups organize and express themselves in ambivalent ways, maintaining complex relationships with both mining and the territory. According to our local interlocutors, struggles around territory in the SdA mainly concern water scarcity, the survival of this unique ecosystem's biological diversity, as well as continuity and change in local lifeways. While recent agreements between mining companies and local communities may benefit some individuals, they are also generating inter- and intra- community tensions over these issues. We find that mining shapes what 'indigenous' means and who can claim this identity, while Indigenous mobilization in turn shapes how mining is perceived and carried out. Together, mining and Indigenous mobilization produce a particular kind of territory, pervaded by diverse lines of both consensus and tension. Rather than contradictions, the ambivalent positions Indigenous peoples maintain become comprehensible when considering, ethnographically and historically, the particular places and lifeworlds they inhabit, and the asymmetrical patterns of constraint and opportunity they face. More broadly, the paper raises questions about the implications of a global transition to renewable energy based on lithium battery technologies, and ethical responses to the climate crisis.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper uses historical and ethnographic methods to examine how lithium mining, territory, and indigeneity co-produce each other in Chile’s Salar de Atacama. It finds broad local consensus on water scarcity and environmental decline, but ambivalence and tensions over mining-company agreements rather than unified Indigenous positions.

Key findings

  • Lithium mining in the Salar de Atacama is the latest phase of a long extractive history; it shapes what “Indigenous” means and who can claim that identity, while Indigenous mobilization in turn shapes how mining is perceived and carried out.
  • The paper reports that the Salar de Atacama supplies 40% of USA’s and 84% of Europe’s lithium; lithium mining quadrupled its surface area from 20.54 km² in 1997 to 80.53 km² in 2017; water use in the Salar exceeded supply with a deficit of 15 m³/s in 2016; and mining accounts for 68% of total water use in Antofagasta versus 7% in Chile overall.
  • Agreements between companies and communities—such as Rockwood’s 2012 agreement with Peine and an equivalent 2016 agreement with the Council of Atacameño People, based on a percentage of lithium and potassium salt sales—benefit some individuals but generate inter- and intra-community tensions over inclusion, representation, and benefit distribution.
  • Local interlocutors broadly agreed on water scarcity and environmental deterioration, but disagreed on the benefits and risks of engaging with lithium companies; the authors argue these ambivalences are not contradictions when understood ethnographically and historically.

Methods

  • Historical and ethnographic study of six Indigenous communities around the Salar de Atacama: Beter and Tulor, Toconao, Séquitor, Quitor, San Pedro de Atacama, and Salar de Tara.
  • 14 semi-structured interviews with Indigenous community members in March 2020, averaging 90 minutes, organized around five thematic axes: livelihoods around the Salar; lithium and development; relations between communities, the state, and mining companies; socio-environmental impacts; and local organization. Interviews were recorded with consent, transcribed, and coded using WebQDA.
  • The analysis situates selected anonymous interview quotations within a broader historical perspective based on literature on mining, environmental change, and local organization in the Salar de Atacama.

Limitations

  • Stated limitations: Not stated in the paper.
  • Evident limitation: the qualitative findings rest on 14 interviews conducted at a specific moment in March 2020, and the authors state they insert only selected anonymous quotations from different interviews.
  • Evident limitation: the study focuses on six Indigenous communities around the Salar de Atacama and relies on secondary literature for the historical perspective, so it does not claim to represent all Atacameño communities or actors.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.exis.2022.101047

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 46 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    Different actors claim and mobilize indigeneity to advance different positions.

    “Different actors claim and mobilize indigeneity to advance different positions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Some interviewees recounted how water is not (only) conceived as a resource, but as a part of a living being with complex linkages with soil, plants and animals.

    “Some of them recounted how water is not (only) conceived as a resource, but as a part of a living being with complex linkages with soil, plants and animals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Direct payments have generated tensions and disagreements within and between communities and their organizations.

    “In particular, direct payments have generated tensions and disagreements within and between communities and their organizations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    According to these agreements, the community and the Council receive a percentage of the sales of lithium and potassium salts.

    “According to these agreements, the community and the Council receive a percentage of the sales of lithium and potassium salts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    For the last two decades, Atacameño communities have negotiated with mining companies for consultation processes, binding economic compensations and support of community development plans.

    “For the last two decades, Atacameño communities have negotiated with mining companies for consultation processes, binding economic compensations and support of community development plans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 47
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Recent agreements between mining companies and local communities may benefit some individuals but are also generating inter- and intra-community tensions over water scarcity, biodiversity, and lifeways.

    “While recent agreements between mining companies and local communities may benefit some individuals, they are also generating interand intra-community tensions over these issues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    While increasing water scarcity in the area is a point of general consensus, ambivalences persist about the benefits of agreements with mining companies and their implications for protecting the territory and its Indigenous culture.

    “While the increasing water scarcity in the area is a point of general consensus, ambivalences persist about the benefits of agreements with mining companies, and their implications for protecting the territory and its Indigenous culture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    According to local interlocutors, struggles around territory in the Salar de Atacama mainly concern water scarcity, the survival of the ecosystem's biological diversity, and continuity and change in local lifeways.

    “According to our local interlocutors, struggles around territory in the SdA mainly concern water scarcity, the survival of this unique ecosystem's biological diversity, as well as continuity and change in local lifeways.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    It is difficult to find a unified political stance for the 'Atacameño' people in the face of lithium mining, and a singular, unambiguous meaning of 'Indigenous' identity itself.

    “However, it is difficult to find a unified political stance for the 'Atacameño' people in the face of lithium mining, and indeed a singular, unambiguous meaning of 'Indigenous' identity itself.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All interviewees were deeply concerned about water scarcity in the area, based on increasing signs of environmental deterioration they have perceived in recent years.

    “All interviewees were deeply concerned about water scarcity in the area, based on the increasing signs of environmental deterioration they have perceived in recent years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Interviewees mentioned decreasing water bodies, changing landscapes, soil salinization, disappearing local fauna, and altered bird migration patterns.

    “They mentioned decreasing water bodies, changing landscapes, soil salinization, disappearing local fauna, and altered bird migration patterns.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    According to interviewees, environmental changes are increasingly connected with the extraction of water.

    “According to our interviewees, these environmental changes are increasingly connected with the extraction of water.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    While there is widespread consensus among communities about growing water scarcity and rising concerns for the area's aquifers, people disagree on the social benefits and risks of different engagements with lithium companies.

    “While there is widespread consensus among communities about growing water scarcity and rising concerns for the area's aquifers, people disagree on the social benefits and risks of different engagements with lithium companies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    There are strong local critics who see the agreements as an exchange of natural resources for money, and a strategy to co-opt community leaders, in a context of strong asymmetry.

    “However, there are strong local critics who see them as an exchange of natural resources for money, and a strategy to co-opt community leaders, in a context of strong asymmetry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Lithium mining in the SdA constitutes the most recent instance of a broader process of social and environmental change that has transformed the region and its people, and is directly related to the expansion of industrial mining from the end of the 19th century onwards.

    “We found that lithium mining in the SdA constitutes the most recent instance of a broader process of social and environmental change that has transformed the region and its people, and is directly related to the expansion of industrial mining from the end of the 19th century onwards.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The consequences of this process today have become apparent in depleted water resources and increasingly vocal fears and grievances among local communities.

    “The consequences of this process today have become apparent in depleted water resources and increasingly vocal fears and grievances among local communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In 2012, Rockwood signed an agreement for cooperation, sustainability and mutual benefit with the Peine community, and an equivalent agreement with the Council of Atacameño People in 2016.

    “Crucially, in 2012, Rockwood signed an 'Agreement for cooperation, sustainability and mutual benefit' with one of the SdA communities, Peine, and an equivalent agreement with the Council of Atacameño People in 2016.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Further conflicts occur within communities regarding who can be admitted as a community member, with people advancing competing claims to Indigenous identity, especially in the case of urban Indigenous peoples who have recently returned to the communities and entered into conflict with families who remained.

    “Further conflicts occur within communities regarding who can be admitted as a community member, with people advancing competing claims to Indigenous identity, especially in the case of urban Indigenous peoples, who have recently returned to the communities, and entered into conflict with families who remained.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    While some present the agreements as fair compensation or participatory measures to prevent and mitigate adverse impacts, others understand them as corporate strategies to co-opt Indigenous organizations and divide communities.

    “While these are presented by some as fair compensation or participatory measures to prevent and mitigate adverse impacts, others understand them as corporate strategies to co-opt Indigenous organizations and divide communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    People recur to nostalgic discourses about the past, voicing a traditional awareness for the environment and corresponding anti-mining sentiments.

    “On the other hand, people recur to nostalgic discourses about the past, voicing a traditional awareness for the environment and corresponding anti-mining sentiments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    One of the interviewees seemed to view the agreements and the resulting payments as compensation for future environmental degradation.

    “One of our interviewees seemed to view the agreements and the resulting payments as compensation for future environmental degradation:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Since Chile implemented Indigenous Law N° 19.253 in 1993 and ratified ILO Convention 169 in 2008, Indigenous communities have been negotiating with the lithium industry.

    “Since Chile implemented its Indigenous Law N • 19.253 in 1993 and ratified ILO Convention 169 in 2008, Indigenous communities have been negotiating with the lithium industry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Mining shapes what 'indigenous' means and who can claim this identity.

    “We find that mining shapes what 'indigenous' means and who can claim this identity, while Indigenous mobilization in turn shapes how mining is perceived and carried out.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Indigeneity is fundamentally temporal, spatial and relational and cannot be disentangled from the (neo)colonial 'encounters' in which it is produced and reproduced until the present day.

    “The term is thus fundamentally temporal, spatial and relational and cannot be disentangled from the (neo)colonial 'encounters,' in which it is produced and reproduced until the present day (Radcliffe, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Radcliffe, 2017 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The meaning of 'indigenous' is part of what is at stake.

    “Thus, the meaning of 'indigenous' is part of what is at stake (Burman, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burman, 2015 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some scholars argue that there is more at stake in mining conflicts than competition over resources, highlighting that Indigenous movements are motivated by broader issues of recognition and resistance to extractivism.

    “In contrast, some scholars have argued that there is more at stake in mining conflicts than competition over resources.These studies highlight that Indigenous movements are not only motivated by immediate concerns, but by broader issues of recognition and, in many cases, resistance to extractivism (Conde, 2017;Coombes et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Conde, 2017 source

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    • cites Coombes et al., 2012 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Mining heavily restructures the places where it operates, making it a particularly consequential activity for Indigenous peoples, whose territorial claims often overlap.

    “Because it heavily restructures the places where it operates, mining is a particularly consequential activity for Indigenous peoples, and their territorial claims often overlap.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Framing Indigenous peoples as victims, resistors, or strategic pragmatists risks essentializing what 'Indigenous' means and leaves little room for the actual ambivalences observed at the local level.

    “However, these images of Indigenous peoples as victims, resistors, or strategic pragmatists, as nuanced as they may be, risk nevertheless essentializing what 'Indigenous' means.They leave little room for the actual ambivalences observed at the local level.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    What it means to be indigenous, who has the power to define its meaning in legal and cultural terms, who can legitimately occupy this position, and to what effect, change over time and are part of political dynamics and strategies.

    “What it means to be indigenous, who has the power to define its meaning in legal and cultural terms, who can legitimately occupy this position, and to what effect, change over time and are part of political dynamics and strategies (Carter and Hollinsworth, 2009;Hufty and Bottazzi, 2006;Valdivia, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Carter and Hollinsworth, 2009

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    • cites Hufty and Bottazzi, 2006

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    • cites Valdivia, 2007 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The literature on mining territories and social license to operate has failed to grasp the particularities of Indigenous mobilization, reducing territorial conflicts to resource governance and disregarding the scope and scale of Indigenous political claims.

    “While this literature has provided important empirical evidence on the risks and opportunities of mining projects in Indigenous territories (Horowitz et al., 2018), it has arguably failed to grasp the particularities of Indigenous mobilization.By reducing territorial conflicts to mere issues of resource governance, it arguably disregards the scope and scale of Indigenous political claims (Acuña, 2”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Acuña, 2015

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    • cites Savino, 2016

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Territories are not fixed objects, but dynamic and open-ended processes that produce multiple and conflicting ways of conceiving of a particular space, and exercising diverse claims over it.

    “As such, these scholars have advanced an understanding of territories not as fixed objects, but as dynamic and open-ended processes that produce multiple and conflicting ways of conceiving of a particular space, and exercising diverse claims over it (Betancourt, 2017;Haesbaert, 2011;Porto-Gonçalves, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Betancourt, 2017

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    • cites Haesbaert, 2011

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    • cites Porto-Gonçalves, 2009

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Legal frameworks recognize only certain kinds of territorial rights sanctioned by modern nation states, and Indigenous claims that exceed these conceptions have been framed in culturalist and ethnic terms or relegated to categories such as 'land' or 'water' to make them legible within state governance.

    “Legal frameworks, for instance, recognize only certain kinds of territorial rights, sanctioned by the institutions of the modern nation state.Indigenous claims that exceed these conceptionse.g. that mountains, rivers, or salt flats are living, sentient parts of the community have been framed in culturalist and ethnic terms, or relegated to categories such as 'land' or 'water' to make them legible”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites de la Cadena, 2015

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    • cites Scott, 1998

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    We need to unpack 'indigeneity', that is, how this identity comes into being and takes on meaning through negotiation and struggle, in specific historical and geographical contexts.

    “We argue that we need to unpack 'indigeneity', that is, how this identity comes into being and takes on meaning through negotiation and struggle, in specific historical and geographical contexts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The intensive use of water by mining projects, and the pumping and evaporation of brine in the lithium mines particularly, have become major accelerators of the water shortage in the area and of ensuing socio-environmental tensions.

    “The intensive use of water by mining projects, and the pumping and evaporation of brine in the lithium mines particularly, have become major accelerators of the water shortage in the areawater use in the Salar exceeds supply, with a deficit of 15 m 3 /s in 2016 (CEPAL-OCDE, 2016) -and of ensuing socio-environmental tensions (Babidge et al., 2019;Liu and Agusdinata, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Babidge et al., 2019

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    • cites Liu and Agusdinata, 2020

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Over the last five decades, the state's participation in lithium production was gradually reduced in favor of complete control by private capital.

    “In a nutshell, over the last five decades, the state's participation in lithium production was gradually reduced in favor of complete control by private capital.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Indigenous mobilization is usually more ambivalent than portrayed in academic debates or activist campaigns, and a reductionist portrayal can constrain actually existing people and their relationship to territory.

    “This body of work points out that Indigenous mobilization is usually more ambivalent than portrayed in academic debates or activist campaigns, and that a reductionist portrayal can constrain actually existing people and their relationship to territory (Cepek, 2016;Kirsch, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cepek, 2016 source

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    • cites Kirsch, 2007 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The growing market for saltpeter led to the integration of Chile into the global economy and turned the Atacama Desert into a pole of national development.

    “The growing market for saltpeter, used in Europe as fertilizer, led to the integration of Chile into the global economy and turned the Atacama Desert into a pole of national development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The progressive arrival of the Chilean state after the War of the Pacific (1879-1883) brought local Indigenous identities into confrontation with a negatively-connotated perception of 'indigenous,' leading many people to renounce their indigeneity to claim a Chilean identity.

    “The progressive arrival of the state after the War of the Pacific (1879-1883) brought local Indigenous identities into confrontation with this negatively-connotated perception of 'indigenous,' leading many people to renounce their indigeneity to claim a Chilean identity (Morales, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morales, 2013 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Today, lithium is the latest mining frontier and it perpetuates the historical trends of the region's extractive matrix.

    “Today, lithium is but the latest mining frontier and it perpetuates the historical trends of the region's extractive matrix.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Copper mining has had huge impacts in the region, creating severe water shortage and shifting the perception of Indigenous peoples from 'primitive' inhabitants of an unincorporated borderland to ubiquitous unskilled mining laborers.

    “However, it has had huge impacts in the region, creating severe water shortage and shifting the perception of Indigenous peoplesfrom the 'primitive' inhabitants of an unincorporated borderland to ubiquitous unskilled mining laborers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Issues of who can claim the 'Indigenous' identity and to what effect, how and where the lines of 'Indigenous communities' are drawn, and who speaks for the 'Atacameño' people have undergone successive waves of transformation.

    “In this process, issues of who can claim the 'Indigenous' identity and to what effect, how and where the lines of 'Indigenous communities' are drawn, and who speaks for the 'Atacameño' people have undergone successive waves of transformation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    From the perspective of some community members, water is a non-dissociable and sacred element that acts as a mechanism for social cohesion.

    “From this perspective water is a non-dissociable and sacred element that acts as a mechanism for social cohesion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boelens, 2014 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For politically marginalized Indigenous communities, saltpeter mining brought dispossession of water, land and resources, which became property of the state, who in turn granted concessions to the mining industry.

    “For politically marginalized Indigenous communities it brought dispossession of water, land and resources, which became property of the state, who in turn granted concessions to the mining industry (Acuña and Tironi, 2021;Morales and Azócar, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Acuña and Tironi, 2021

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    • cites Morales and Azócar, 2015

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Territorial conflicts in the Salar de Atacama are about, as much and at the same time, water conceived as a resource, and water-in its different forms and in its unity-as part of a living socionatural landscape.

    “More completely, it could be said that they are about, as much and at the same time, water conceived as a resource, and waterin its different forms and in its unityas part of a living socionatural landscape.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The discovery of lithium deposits in the Salar de Atacama owes itself to mining companies expanding their consumption of and control over water.

    “In fact, the very discovery of lithium deposits owes itself to mining companies expanding their consumption of and control over water.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Debating territoriality and ontology issues risks turning Indigenous peoples into ideal, 'radical' political subjects and misrepresenting actually existing people when they take a more ambivalent stance towards mining and other territorial projects.

    “While debating these issues is crucial in times of global mining expansion and the rapid loss of cultural diversity, it also involves the risk of turning Indigenous peoples into ideal, 'radical' political subjects.Thereby, it risks misrepresenting actually existing people, when they take a more ambivalent stance towards mining and other territorial projects (Bessire and Bond, 2014;Cepek, 2016;Ne”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bessire and Bond, 2014

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    • cites Cepek, 2016 source

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    • cites Neale and Vincent, 2017

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In Antofagasta, mining accounts for 68% of total water use.

    “While in Chile overall mining consumes an average of 7% of total water resources, in Antofagasta it accounts for 68% of total water use (Business News Americas, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Business News Americas, 2007

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As a result, companies have been able to negotiate terms and adopt strategies that favor extraction, pacify resistance, and divide communities through the uneven distribution of benefits.

    “As a result, companies have been able to negotiate terms and adopt strategies that favor extraction, pacify resistance, and divide communities through the uneven distribution of benefits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Mining in itself not only is a part of the history in which local territories were produced, but has also shaped what it means to be Indigenous, and how Indigenous organizations take shape.

    “Indeed, mining in itself not only is a part of the history, in which local territories were produced, but has also shaped what it means to be Indigenous, and how Indigenous organizations take shape.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    These struggles take place in a scenario where the state has been long absent, except as the legal guarantor legitimizing extraction, leaving ample space for the mining industry to assume a central role in restructuring the socio-environmental fabric in the region.

    “These struggles take place in a scenario where the state has been long absent, except as the legal guarantor legitimizing extraction, leaving ample space for the mining industry to assume a central role in restructuring the socio-environmental fabric in the region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Indigenous Law had a tremendous symbolic effect, despite some weaknesses.

    “The law had a tremendous symbolic effect, despite some weaknesses (Morales, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morales, 2014

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gundermann and Göbel (2018) understand the agreements as part of the corporate concept of 'shared values,' according to which companies should share their economic gains as a way of reducing confrontation with local communities.

    “Gundermann and Göbel (2018) understand it as part of the corporate concept of 'shared values,' according to which companies should share their economic gains as a way of reducing confrontation with local communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gundermann and Göbel, 2018

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These fears and grievances have reinforced Indigenous demands for territorial control over the Atacama Salt Flat and for lithium mining to stop.

    “The latter have reinforced Indigenous demands for territorial control over the Atacama Salt Flat and for lithium mining to stop.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Agreements between Indigenous organizations and lithium companies have brought significant economic resources for community development, but have also expanded the mining industry's capacity for social control in the area.

    “Agreements between Indigenous organizations and lithium companies have brought significant economic resources for community development, but have also expanded the mining industry's capacity for social control in the area.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The first Indigenous Congress recognized that water represents a big problem because it is a basic resource for both the communities and industrial mining projects.

    “It recognized that water represents “a big problem, since it is a basic resource for both the communities and industrial mining projects” (Morales, 2014: 123).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morales, 2014: 123

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Between 1995 and 1998, Indigenous organizations legally registered the surface waters of the Atacama basin to prevent its sale, but the groundwater was left unprotected and accessible for mining companies.

    “Between 1995 and 1998, Indigenous organizations legally registered the surface waters of the Atacama basin to prevent its sale.However, the groundwater was left unprotected and accessible for mining companies (Gundermann and Göbel, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gundermann and Göbel, 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The attempted unification of the Atacameño people under the Council of Atacameño People has come at the cost of obscuring internal differences and generating conflicts over included and excluded communities.

    “At a broader scale, the attempted unification of the Atacameño people under the Council of Atacameño People has come at the cost of obscuring internal differences and generating conflicts over included and excluded communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Indigenous identity is instrumentally used to resist mining, as well as to capture economic benefits from mining companies.

    “On one hand, Indigenous identity is instrumentally used to resist mining, as well as to capture economic benefits from mining companies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    The Indigenous Law (1993) was a turning point that created CONADI to promote Indigenous development, protect Indigenous lands and maintain a registry of lands, communities and associations, and gave communities access to state subsidies and a say in matters of their concern.

    “The Indigenous Law (1993), negotiated with Indigenous groups, was a turning point.It created a state agency, the CONADI, to promote Indigenous development, protect Indigenous lands and maintain a registry of lands, communities and associations.It also gave communities access to state subsidies and a say in matters that were of their concern.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As Babidge (2013) argues, Indigenous organizations are not only minor 'partners' in these agreements, but also those who risk the most, since the integrity of their environment is at stake and thus the very future of their communities.

    “As Babidge (2013) argues, Indigenous organizations are not only minor 'partners' in these agreements, but also those who risk the most, since the integrity of their environment is at stake and thus the very future of their communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Babidge, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These negotiations and agreements between Indigenous organizations and lithium mining companies have transformed Indigenous societies around the SdA, resulting in tensions and fractures and straining the social fabric within and between Atacama communities.

    “These negotiations and agreements between Indigenous organizations and lithium mining companies have transformed Indigenous societies around the SdA, resulting in tensions and fractures and straining the social fabric within and between Atacama communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning

    Stereotypical ways that Indigenous peoples are often represented pose analytical and practical limits.

    “As we indicated in the conceptual section, the stereotypical ways that Indigenous peoples are often represented pose analytical and practical limits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The language of 'agreement' paints a simplistic image of consent that obscures the fact that dissent and tensions are equally important parts of the story.

    “Thus, the language of 'agreement' paints a simplistic image of consent that obscures the fact that dissent and tensions are equally important parts of the story.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These struggles have broader relevance, serving as reminders of core contradictions and inequalities within global political economy and ecology, the links and disconnects between production and consumption, and the incongruences between value systems articulated through global markets.

    “They are also struggles which have broader relevance.They serve as reminders of core contradictions and inequalities within global political economy and ecology, the links and disconnects between production and consumption, and the incongruences between value systems articulated through global markets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These struggles raise important questions about the implications of a global shift to renewable energy, and ethical responses to the climate crisis.

    “In this sense, these struggles raise important questions about the implications of a global shift to renewable energy, and ethical responses to the climate crisis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    They are always ambivalent struggles to remake Indigenous identity in particular ways, and to define alternative cultural-political projects.

    “They arealways ambivalentstruggles to remake Indigenous identity in particular ways, and to define alternative cultural-political projects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
61 of 61

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The studies carried out by mining companies contrast with local assessments of environmental deterioration.

    “These assessments are in stark contrast to the studies carried out by the companies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    State and economic actors base their understanding of water on the 1981 Water Code, in which water is considered a tradable good.

    “State and economic actors, such as mining companies and tourist agencies, base their understanding of water on the 1981 Water Code, in which water is considered a tradable good.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The surrounding area is made up of 21 indigenous communities and 14 ayllus.

    “The surrounding area is made up of 21 indigenous communities (registered with the National Corporation for Indigenous Development (Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena; CONADI)) and 14 ayllus (Lorca et al. 2022; Portal turístico de San Pedro de Atacama Chile 2023).”

    From S-LCA of lithium mining in Chile and its potential impacts on water and the local community (2025) · cites this paper as Lorca et al. 2022

    Section 3.1 (page unavailable) describes Indigenous communities living around the Salar de Atacama and their relationship to traditional ayllus; Section 5 says CONADI maintains a registry of communities. Neither section gives a total of 21 communities or 14 ayllus. The six communities named in Section 3.1 are those included in the study, not a stated total for the surrounding area. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Lorca et al. (2022) conducted interviews with the local community in the SdA where they recounted that water is not only conceived as a resource, but as part of a living being with complex linkages with soil, plants and animals.

    “Lorca et al. (2022) conducted interviews with the local community in the SdA where they recounted that “water is not (only) conceived as a resource, but as a part of a living being with complex linkages with soil, plants and animals.””

    From S-LCA of lithium mining in Chile and its potential impacts on water and the local community (2025) · cites this paper as Lorca et al. 2022

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Community name differs between the study area and participant description

    Minor

    The study area names a community called Salar de Tara and says it is being legally constituted. The description of Interview 11 names a community called Salar de Talar and likewise says it is in the process of legal establishment, leaving the community's name inconsistent.

1 of 1

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 71 · Cited by 62

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Benavides, 2014, El convenio minero en tierras indias el oasis de Peine y la gran minería en la cuenca del Salar de Atacama, Revista Rufián, 19, 31
  2. Betancourt, M. 2017. Colonialidad territorial y conflictividad en Abya Yala/América Latina, in Alimonda, H., Toro Pérez, C. and Martín, F. (Eds.), Ecología política Latinoamericana: pensamiento crítico, diferencia Latinoamericana y rearticulación epistémica, Tomo II: 303–352. Buenos Aires.
  3. Bolados, 2014, Los conflictos etnoambientales de ‘Pampa Colorada’ y ‘El Tatio’ en el Salar de Atacama, Norte de Chile, Estudios Atacameños, 48, 229
  4. Gajardo, 2019, Andean hypersaline lakes in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile: between lithium exploitation and unique biodiversity conservation, Conserv. Sci. Pract., 1, 1
  5. Lorca, 2017, El patrimonio como forma de resistencia a la gran minería. El caso del Huasco Alto, Chile, Revista Intersecciones en antropología, 18, 31
  6. Marquet, 1998, Los ecosistemas del desierto de Atacama y área andina adyacente en el norte de Chile, Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 71, 593
  7. Pavlovic, 2014, La industria del litio en Chile, Ingenieros, 209, 30
  8. Romero, 2019, Globalización de las empresas de energía renovable: extracción de litio y derechos de los pueblos indígenas en Argentina, Bolivia y Chile (Triángulo del Litio), Observatorio Ciudadano

Authors
Lorca, M., Olivera Andrade, M., Escosteguy, M., Köppel, J., Scoville-Simonds, M., & Hufty, M.
Affiliations
  • University of Atacama (CL)
  • National University of Salta (AR)
  • Hoffmann Centre for Global Sustainability (CH)
  • University of Agder (NO)
Corresponding author
Hufty, Marc
ORCID
Venue
The Extractive Industries and Society
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2022-03
Volume
9
Pages
101047
ISSN
2214-790X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.exis.2022.101047
OpenAlex
W4210588913
Cited by
62
References
71
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 6
FWCI
17.98
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • The Extractive Industries and Society (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Graduate Institute Geneva Institutional Repository (Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies) (submittedVersion)
  • NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
Funders
  • Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (172698)
  • Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (11180429)
  • Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Extractivism and Socioeconomic Issues
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Mining and Resource Management
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Indigenous Cultures and History
Keywords
lithium mining, Salar de Atacama, indigenous peoples, territoriality, indigeneity, indigenous mobilization, water scarcity, biodiversity conservation, renewable energy transition, extractivism

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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