Cited by 392COVID-19 and Mental HealthAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesCommunication and COVID-19 Impact

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Incremental validity of coronaphobia: Coronavirus anxiety explains depression, generalized anxiety, and death anxiety

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Lee, Sherman A., Jobe, Mary C., Mathis, Amanda A., Gibbons, Jeffrey A.·2020·Journal of Anxiety Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102268PMC PMC7328548

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Abstract

The adverse psychological effects of COVID-19 have increased globally. Moreover, the psychological toll may be worsening for this health crisis due to the growing numbers of mass deaths and unemployment levels. Coronaphobia, a relatively new pandemic-related construct, has been shown to be strongly related to functional impairment and psychological distress. However, the extent to which coronaphobia is uniquely accountable for the psychological distress experienced during the COVID-19 crisis has not been systematically investigated. The current study examined this question of incremental validity using online data from 453 adult MTurk workers in the U.S. The results of a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses demonstrated that coronaphobia explained additional variance in depression, generalized anxiety, and death anxiety, above sociodemographics, COVID-19 factors, and the vulnerability factors of neuroticism, health anxiety, and reassurance-seeking behaviors. These findings suggest that health professionals should be aware of coronaphobia as this expression of pandemic-related stress has reliably demonstrated incremental validity in accounting for major indicators of psychological distress.

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Using multivariate statistics
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Well-being in the post-pandemic era: the role of meaning in life and resilience
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Systematic review on attitudes towards death and dying in adults 50 years and older living in countries with community transmission of COVID-19.
Officer, A., Pautex, S., Badache, A., Broers, B., & Prina, M. (2024) · Archives of gerontology and geriatrics (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2024.105573 · Cited by 7
Noli Timere: The Role of Reassuring Adults in Dealing with COVID-19 Anxiety in Pediatric Age
Smirni, D. (2021) · Pediatric Reports · doi:10.3390/pediatric13010003 · Cited by 8
“Children and adolescents suddenly have to face an unknown and incomprehensible faceless enemy, which force them to distance themselves from their peers [12] to drastically change their daily reassuring habits, and to lose all certainty for their future and Citation: Smirni, D.”
Background
The COVID‐19 Pandemic: An Evolving Story. Professional and Personal Insights using Self and Culture as Agents of Calm and Healing after a Year of Co‐habitation with Imminent Threat
Amorin‐Woods, D. (2021) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1002/anzf.1442 · Cited by 8
Coronavirus anxiety as a predictor of burnout, depressive symptoms and insomnia among professionally active nurses: a preliminary report
Mokros, Ł., Januszczak, J., Baka, Ł., Sienkiewicz‐Jarosz, H., & Świtaj, P. (2021) · Postępy Psychiatrii i Neurologii · doi:10.5114/ppn.2021.108473 · Cited by 7
“reported that coronavirus anxiety predicted depression among non-healthcare workers [9].”
BackgroundInfluential
Relationship between parental anxiety and students’ academic stress at secondary level
Hafeez, M., Saira, S., & Ijaz, A. (2022) · International Journal of Learning & Teaching · doi:10.18844/ijlt.v14i1.6271 · Cited by 7
“Anxiety may occur as a consequence of stress and can affect the memory and learning process (Lee et al., 2020).”
Background
Analyzing the Mediating Effect of Psychological Resilience on the Relationship between COVID-19 Fear and Happiness
Yirci, R., Atalmış, E. H., & KİRİŞCİ, G. (2022) · Educational Process International Journal · doi:10.22521/edupij.2022.112.8 · Cited by 7
“…have also been put forth, with some associated more with positive emotions than negative emotions Kangal (2013), Karakose et al. (2016), Özdemir & Koruklu (2011) the fulfilment of all one’s desires Gülcan & Bal (2014), and experiencing the feeling of being perfect in every way (Layard, 2005).”
Background
“COVID-19 Psychology” among Older Adults: As a Grief Process
Durak, M., & Şenol-Durak, E. (2020) · Journal of Aging and Long-Term Care · doi:10.51819/jaltc.2020.901148 · Cited by 7
The Pandemic Anxiety Inventory: A validation study
Schonfeld, I. S., Prytherch, T., Cropley, M., & Bianchi, R. (2022) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053221106129 · Cited by 6
“The Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (CAS), which was developed by Lee (2020) and Lee et al. (2020a, 2020b, 2021), assesses anxiety related to the COVID-19 pandemic.”
Method
The Effect of Covid-19 Phobia on Perceived Stress: The Sample of Prehospital Emergency Care Professionals
Dörttepe, Z. Ü., HOŞGÖR, H., & SAĞCAN, H. (2021) · International Journal of Academic Value Studies (Javstudies JAVS) · doi:10.29228/javs.49250 · Cited by 6
Generalized anxiety disorder among rural primary and middle school students during the outbreak of COVID-19: a multicenter study in three southern Chinese cities
Yang, Z., Zhang, Y., Xu, H., Gan, M., Ma, J., Liu, J., Tan, X., Hou, W., Ye, W., & Li, L. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15215-8 · Cited by 6
“Fear of contracting COVID-19 (Coronaphobia) Coronaphobia, a new emerging phobia specific to COVID-19 [21], was measured using Lee’s 5-item scale(2020) [22, 23].”
Method
Determining the Effect of Stress and Anxiety on Eating Attitudes in Healthcare Providers Working on COVID-19 Wards
Üstün, D., & Yılmaz, S. (2023) · Ecology of Food and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/03670244.2023.2187384 · Cited by 6
Portfolio decision analysis for pandemic sentiment assessment based on finance and web queries
Cerqueti, R., Cesarone, F., & Ficcadenti, V. (2024) · Annals of Operations Research · doi:10.1007/s10479-024-05966-x · Cited by 6
“Generally speaking, the global pandemic situation has had deleterious effects on people’s behaviour, manifesting in widespread anxiety and a diminishing trust in a positive future outlook (see, e.g., Lee et al., 2020, Mann et al., 2020).”
Effect of the COVID‐19 pandemic on the anxiety and depression levels in patients who applied to the cosmetology unit
Temiz, S. A., Durmaz, K., Dursun, R., Ataseven, A., Işık, B., Karaağaç, O., Özer, İ., & Daye, M. (2020) · Dermatologic Therapy · doi:10.1111/dth.14625 · Cited by 5
“During the COVID-19 pandemic process, people may experience anxiety, fear and depression as a result of the influence of the media and their observations around them.(4) During the pandemic process, the majority of the society volunteers to stay at home and pay attention to social isolation and precautions, avoiding c…”
Background
Emotional Labour During the COVID-19 Pandemic—Current Inquiry and Suggested Future Research Directions
Das, D., Pal, S., & Jena, L. K. (2023) · Management and Labour Studies · doi:10.1177/0258042x231167987 · Cited by 5
“…2009; Poletti et al., 2011; Smith, 2006), anxiety (Jungmann & Witthöft, 2020; Maaravi & Heller, 2020), fear (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020; Lee, 2020; Lee et al., 2020) and the new societal norms will have a combined effect on the emotional well-being of the employee, thereby affecting their…”
BackgroundInfluential
Mass Shootings Anxiety Scale: A preliminary psychometric study
Lee, S. A. (2023) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2023.2214889 · Cited by 6
“…is not only associated with many expressions of psychological disturbance, such as death anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation (Lee, 2020a; Lee et al., 2020), but it is also linked to destructive coping behaviors, such as alcohol and substance use (Lee, 2020a), and the impaired ability to…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
An analysis of student bucket lists in death and dying courses: data from three U.S. Universities
Ritter, L. J., Bagasra, A. B., & Richards, S. (2023) · Mortality · doi:10.1080/13576275.2023.2263387 · Cited by 5
“In addition, recent death anxiety research has focused on the role of COVID-19 on mental health and fears of death (Lee et al., 2020; Menzies et al., 2020).”
The Role of Social Media in the Experiences of COVID-19 Among Long-Hauler Women: Qualitative Study
Garrett, C. M., Aghaei, A., Aggarwal, A., & Qiao, S. (2024) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/50443 · Cited by 7
Slovak adaptation of the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale
Pekárová, V., Rajčániová, E., & Tomšík, R. (2022) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2022.2039812 · Cited by 6
THE RELATIONS BETWEEN FEAR OF COVID-19, ANXIETY OF DEATH, AND MEANING OF LIFE AMONG NURSING STUDENTS
Yi̇ği̇talp, G., & Gümüş, F. (2022) · International Journal of Health Services Research and Policy · doi:10.33457/ijhsrp.1112061 · Cited by 5
Fear of the unknown, anxiety, and social isolation in Iranian patients with Covid-19, the grounded theory
Zardosht, R., Ghardashi, F., Borzoee, F., Akbarzadeh, R., Sani, F. V., Yazdimoghaddam, H., & Samadipour, E. (2023) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_861_22 · Cited by 6
“[20] In the second stage of data analysis for the context, the complicated, ambiguous, and unknown nature of the coronavirus was identified as the underlying context of this main concern.”
Background
Stigma Linked to COVID-19
Nuckchady, D. C. (2021) · International Neuropsychiatric Disease Journal · doi:10.9734/indj/2021/v15i130144 · Cited by 5
NURSES’ PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS DURING THE FIRST COVID-19 LOCKDOWN IN ITALY
Botti, S., Cannici, C., Liptrott, S. J., Cecco, V. D., Rostagno, E., Gargiulo, G., Orlando, L., Alessandro, C., Samarani, E., Galgano, L., et al. (2022) · Mediterranean Journal of Hematology and Infectious Diseases · doi:10.4084/mjhid.2022.010 · Cited by 5
Delivering Health Services during Early Days of COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspectives of Frontline Healthcare Workers in Kenya’s Urban Informal Settlements
Angwenyi, V., Odero, S. A., Mulupi, S., Ssewanyana, D., Shumba, C. S., Ndirangu, E. W., & Abubakar, A. A. (2023) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid3020012 · Cited by 5
“Poor mental health status of HCWs has been associated with poor quality of care outcomes amongst patients [37,38].”
Background
Stress in emergency telephone number operators during the COVID-19 pandemic: the role of self-efficacy and Big Five personality traits
Dymecka, J., Tarczyński, R., & Gerymski, R. (2022) · Health Psychology Report · doi:10.5114/hpr/115820 · Cited by 5
“Studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic have shown that neuroticism was associated with experiencing health anxiety and stress (Lee et al., 2020).”
Background
Do Socio-Demographic and Corona Reassurance-Seeking Behaviour Predict Corona Anxiety? - A study among Indian population.
Das, D., & Pal, S. (2021) · Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management · doi:10.24083/apjhm.v16i2.659 · Cited by 5
Evidencia de validez y confiabilidad de la versión en español de la Coronavirus Reassurance-Seeking Behaviors Scale en adultos de Lima, Perú
Vivanco-Vidal, M., Saroli-Araníbar, D., Caycho‐Rodríguez, T., Carbajal‐León, C., Barboza-Palomino, M., & Reyes-Bossio, M. A. (2021) · Ansiedad y Estrés · doi:10.5093/anyes2021a20 · Cited by 5
ABC framework of fear of COVID-19 for psychotherapeutic intervention in Nepal: a reviewPreprint
Paudel, D. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/9sj4a · Cited by 5
Anxiety relief in the post-pandemic era: a randomized trial on the integration of digital technology into dance art healing
Qiu, S., Ruan, C., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1545461 · Cited by 5
Unveiling the Relationships Between Household Labor and Maternal Well‐Being
Bennett, M. M., Oswald, D. L., & Kaugars, A. S. (2024) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.70019 · Cited by 4
Short- and long-term psychiatric complications of COVID-19
Ahmed, G. K., Ramadan, H. K., & Khedr, E. M. (2025) · The Egyptian Journal of Neurology Psychiatry and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1186/s41983-025-00972-7 · Cited by 5
“In some cases, this anxiety developed into “coronaphobia”, characterised by avoidance of public venues and gatherings [11, 12].”
The Role of Science-Based Knowledge on the SARS-CoV-2 Virus in Reducing COVID-19-Induced Anxiety among Nurses
Dubovi, I., Ruban, A., & Aharon, A. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19127070 · Cited by 4
“Pandemic-related stress has also been linked with cognitive functional impairment, such as reduced attention and working memory; negative coping mechanisms, such as increased intake of alcohol or drugs; and increased suicidal ideation [11].”
Background
Nurses' Experiences, Fear of COVID-19, and Death Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study From Turkey.
Çekiç, Y., Yazgan, E., & Duyan, V. (2022) · Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services · doi:10.3928/02793695-20220621-01 · Cited by 5
Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Happiness and Socioeconomic Conditions: Differences Across Countries and Individuals' Personality Traits
Kamilçelebi, H. (2022) · Journal of Economic Policy Researches / İktisat Politikası Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.26650/jepr1063845 · Cited by 4
“In a study conducted at the beginning of the pandemic, it was found that neuroticism was related to health anxiety and a positive relationship existed between neuroticism and Covid-19 anxiety (Lee et al., 2020).”
Background
Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (CAS)
Lee, S. A., Close, S., Eads, D., & Pappalardo, E. A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89738-3_10-1 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Effects of mask use on cardiopulmonary functions and coronaphobia in the COVID-19 pandemic: an observational study among university students
Üstündağ, H., Akbaba, Ö., & Huyut, M. T. (2023) · Medical Gas Research · doi:10.4103/2045-9912.385440 · Cited by 4
“41 In the C19P-S study, which was adapted for the United States and used to examine the participant’s characteristics regarding coronaphobia levels, a significant positive relationship was reported between coronaphobia and anxiety.”
Method
Coronaphobia flips the emotional world upside down: Unhealthy variables positively predict the fading affect bias at high physical symptoms of coronavirus anxiety
Gibbons, J. A., Harris, K. D., Friedmann, E. D., Pappalardo, E. A., Rocha, G. R., Traversa, M. J., Nolan, M. J., & Lee, S. A. (2023) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4144 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Patient’s psychological experiences during and after recovery from COVID-19 pandemic: a phenomenological study in Pakistan
Ahmed, F., Bhatti, R., Malik, N. I., Haleem, M. S., Rehman, A., Yousaf, A., Saleem, M., Kahlid, N., Nawaz, R., & Gong, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02399-4 · Cited by 5
Pengaruh Kecerdasan Emosional terhadap Burnout pada Perawat dengan Coronavirus Anxiety sebagai Variabel Mediator
Karim, A., & Purba, H. P. (2021) · Buletin Riset Psikologi dan Kesehatan Mental (BRPKM) · doi:10.20473/brpkm.v1i1.25073 · Cited by 4
Covid-19 Döneminde Cerrahi Hemşirelerinin Anksiyete, Psikolojik Dayanıklılık ve Algılanan Sosyal Destek Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişkinin Belirlenmesi
Yeşilyaprak, T., Özsoy, H., & Korkmaz, F. D. (2023) · Hemşirelik Bilimi Dergisi · doi:10.54189/hbd.1173790 · Cited by 4
Validation of the Korean version of the Utrecht Grief Rumination Scale and its relationship with COVID‐related hypochondriasis among healthcare workers who witnessed patient deaths
Kim, J. H., & Chung, S. (2023) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.3203 · Cited by 3
The Impact Of Death Anxiety On Quality Of Life Among Cancer Patients: A Case Of Bahawalpur And Multan District
al., S. H. E. (2021) · Psychology and Education Journal · doi:10.17762/pae.v58i1.2162 · Cited by 4
“Death anxiety is considered a normal among the cancer patients (Lee et al. 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
Exploring the relationship between personal and cohabiting family members’ COVID-19 infection experiences and fear of COVID-19: a longitudinal study based on the Japan COVID-19 and Society Internet Survey (JACSIS)
Ishikawa, A., Tachikawa, H., Midorikawa, H., & Tabuchi, T. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-087595 · Cited by 4

Authors: Lee, S. A., Jobe, M. C., Mathis, A. A., & Gibbons, J. A.
Affiliations: Christopher Newport University (US)
Corresponding author: Lee, Sherman A.
ORCID: Lee, Sherman A.
Jobe, Mary C.
Gibbons, Jeffrey A.
Venue: Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-08
Volume: 74
Pages: 102268
ISSN: 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102268
PMC: PMC7328548
OpenAlex: W3039080593
Cited by: 392
References: 23
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 92 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 107 · 2020: 32
FWCI: 31.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
Keywords: fear of COVID-19, COVID-19 pandemic, incremental validity, depression, generalized anxiety disorder, fear of death, psychological distress, pandemic stress, health anxiety, reassurance seeking, neuroticism, healthcare workers
MeSH terms: Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Anxiety, Depression, Disease Outbreaks, Fear, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, Stress, Psychological, Coronavirus, Coronavirus Infections, Pandemics

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Incremental validity of coronaphobia: Coronavirus anxiety explains depression, generalized anxiety, and death anxiety

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