Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales
Open accessAbstract
Research and clinical observations suggest that during times of pandemic many people exhibit stress- or anxiety-related responses that include fear of becoming infected, fear of coming into contact with possibly contaminated objects or surfaces, fear of foreigners who might be carrying infection (i.e., disease-related xenophobia), fear of the socio-economic consequences of the pandemic, compulsive checking and reassurance-seeking regarding possible pandemic-related threats, and traumatic stress symptoms about the pandemic (e.g., nightmares, intrusive thoughts). We developed the 36-item COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure these features, as they pertain to COVID-19. The CSS were developed to better understand and assess COVID-19-related distress. The scales were intentionally designed so they could be readily adapted for future pandemics. The CSS were developed and initially validated in population-representative samples from Canada (N = 3479) and the United States (N = 3375). A stable 5-factor solution was identified, corresponding to scales assessing COVID-related stress and anxiety symptoms: (1) Danger and contamination fears, (2) fears about economic consequences, (3) xenophobia, (4) compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and (5) traumatic stress symptoms about COVID-19. The scales performed well on various indices of reliability and validity. The scales were intercorrelated, providing evidence of a COVID Stress Syndrome. The scales offer promise as tools for better understanding the distress associated with COVID-19 and for identifying people in need of mental health services.
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The COVID-19 pandemic has led to increases in rates of mental health disturbances in the general population.
“Since the onset of the pandemic, an important number of studies have been interested in its psychological impacts and showed increases in rates of mental health disturbances.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
The Introduction reports moderate to severe stress- or anxiety-related symptoms in response to COVID-19, and Results > Sample characterization reports elevated anxiety and depressive symptoms in a general-population sample during the pandemic (page numbers unavailable). These passages support pandemic-related mental health disturbance, but they do not compare rates with pre-pandemic rates or establish an increase. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe prevalence of psychological distress has increased.
“Moreover, faced with the increase in the prevalence of psychological distress [3,4], it seems useful to invest in the development of prevention tools.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
The Results (Sample characterization; page unavailable) report elevated anxiety in 28% of the US and Canadian sample and clinically significant depressive symptoms in 22%. This documents psychological distress during the pandemic, but the paper provides no before-and-after comparison establishing that its prevalence increased. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInitial data suggest that the CSS is reliable and valid.
“While the CSS is a novel measure, initial data suggest that the CSS is reliable (Cronbach’s α for individual subscales ranged from 0.86–0.95) and valid [97].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
The Results sections on internal consistency and convergent and discriminant validity support the claim that initial data indicate the CSS is reliable and valid. However, Table 2 reports a Cronbach’s α of 0.83 for compulsive checking in the Canadian sample, so the stated range of 0.86–0.95 omits the lowest value. Page numbers were not supplied. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWhile an initial five-factor structure was proposed, subsequent studies have proposed a six-factor solution.
“While an initial five-factor structure was proposed, subsequent studies have proposed a six-factor solution [97,98].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
The Results (Exploratory and Confirmatory factor analysis) and Discussion report an initial five-factor solution. This paper does not report the claim that subsequent studies proposed a six-factor solution; its mention of six initial scales is not a six-factor finding from a subsequent study. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe CSS is a 36-item measure of COVID distress.
“The CSS is a 36-item measure of COVID distress.”
As per Taylor et al. (2020), anxiety mainly related to worries about catching the virus and socio-economic concerns.
“As per Taylor et al. (2020), anxiety mainly related to worries about catching the virus and socio‐economic concerns.”
From Living through lockdown: A qualitative exploration of individuals' experiences in the UK. (2022) · cites this paper as Taylor et al. (2020)
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“At the time of writing this manuscript, the COVID Stress Scale (CSM) was developed to measure COVID-19-related distress (Taylor et al. 2020).”
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“…shown to be two relevant risk factors associated with depression, generalized anxiety, hopelessness and suicidal ideation, during the COVID-19 outbreak (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Asmundson and Taylor, 2020; Bakioğlu et al., 2020; Merterns et al., 2020; Rettie and Daniels, 2020; Satici et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCyberchondria in the time of the COVID ‐19 pandemic
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MENTAL ILLNESS IN THE GENERAL POPULATION AND HEALTH PROFESSIONALS DURING COVID-19: A SCOPING REVIEW
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“1016 relationship between fear and behaviors is complex(14) as other evidence has shown that fear may lead to irrational behaviors.(15,17) Because individuals with mental illness usually suffer from poor mood control and cognitive impairment,(39,40) they may have difficulties in practicing preventive behaviors if they…”
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“These results may speak to gaming and smartphone use as self-medication for negative emotion among participants during the COVID pandemic, supporting recent findings (Taylor et al., 2020a).”
BackgroundResultWheaton, M. G., Messner, G. R., & Marks, J. B. (2021) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2020.100605 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“Similarly, individuals with severe health anxiety may also be especially affected by COVID-19 (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020).”
InfluentialKhosravani, V., Aardema, F., Ardestani, S. M. S., & Bastan, F. S. (2021) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2021.100626 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Sauer, K. S., Jungmann, S. M., & Witthöft, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17197241 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“These results are consistent with previously shown associations between health anxiety and COVID-19 related reassurance [13,20,28] and preventive behavior [15,22,23].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSorkin, D. H., Janio, E. A., Eikey, E. V., Schneider, M., Davis, K., Schueller, S. M., Stadnick, N. A., Zheng, K., Neary, M., Safani, D., et al. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/26994 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Fourth, there exist a number of scales pertaining to examining the self-reported impact of COVID-19 on mental health [48-51].”
Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., & Aytaç, M. (2020) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1824204 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“…research has indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with a wide range of psychological consequences among people such as fear, depression, anxiety, stress, and death distress (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Arslan, & Yıldırım, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020; Lee, 2020; Yıldırım & G€uler, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialCan COVID-19 related mental health issues be measured?
Ransing, R. S., Ramalho, R., Orsolini, L., Adiukwu, F. N., González-Díaz, J. M., Larnaout, A., da Costa, M. P., Grandinetti, P., Bytyçi, D. G., Shalbafan, M., et al. (2020) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.049 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Vally, Z. (2020) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.08.002 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Public Concern About Violence, Firearms, and the COVID-19 Pandemic in California
Kravitz‐Wirtz, N., Aubel, A. J., Schleimer, J. P., Pallin, R., & Wintemute, G. J. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33484 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Tanhan, A., Yavuz, K. F., Young, J. S., Nalbant, A., Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., Ulusoy, S., Genç, E., Uğur, E., & Çiçek, İ. (2020) · Electronic Journal of General Medicine · doi:10.29333/ejgm/8316 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Tull, M. T., Barbano, A. C., Scamaldo, K. M., Richmond, J. R., Edmonds, K. A., Rose, J. P., & Gratz, K. L. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102290 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Beyond anxiety in general, the unique features of this pandemic (e.g., long incubation period, variable symptom presentation, elevated morbidity and mortality rates, and lack of pharmacological interventions) may also be particularly likely to increase health anxiety (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020b).”
InfluentialPakpour, A. H., Griffiths, M. D., & Lin, C. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00334-9 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“The CSS was developed using representative samples from Canada (n = 3479) and the USA (n = 3375; Taylor et al. 2020), whereas the FCV-19S was developed using a sample from Iran (n = 717; Ahorsu et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCOVID Stress Syndrome: Clinical and Nosological Considerations
Taylor, S. J. (2021) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-021-01226-y · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Banerjee, D., Vaishnav, M., Rao, T. S., Raju, M., Dalal, P., Javed, A., Saha, G., Mishra, K. K., Kumar, V., & Jagiwala, M. P. (2020) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/psychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_1002_20 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Various assessment scales have also been used to gauge the psychological parameters specific to the COVID-19 pandemic such as the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (CAS), Obsession with COVID19 Scale, Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) in Italian, Bangla, Russian and English versions, and the COVID Stress Scale which consists o…”
MethodFactors explaining the fear of being infected with COVID‐19
Cerda, A. A., & García, L. Y. (2021) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13274 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Taylor, S. J., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.002 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“On the other hand, people with excessive anxiety are more likely to engage in socially disruptive behaviors (e.g., panic buying), may engage in excessive avoidance, and may even become housebound for fear of contamination (Asmundson and Taylor, 2020; Taylor, 2019; Taylor and Asmundson, 2020).”
Saúde mental de profissionais de enfermagem durante a pandemia de COVID-19: recursos de apoio
Ramos, A. M., Tomaschewski-Barlem, J. G., Barlem, E. L. D., Castanheira, J. S., & Toescher, R. L. (2020) · Escola Anna Nery · doi:10.1590/2177-9465-ean-2020-0276 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Mira, J. J., Carrillo, I., Guilabert, M., Mula, A., Martín-Delgado, J., Pérez‐Jover, V., Vicente, M. A., & Fernández, C. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042555 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Latent profile analysis of COVID-19 fear, depression, anxiety, stress, mindfulness, and resilience
Yalçın, İ., Can, N., Çalışır, Ö. M., Yalçın, S., & Çolak, B. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01667-x · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Coronaphobia revisted: A state-of-the-art on pandemic-related fear, anxiety, and stress
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Taylor, S. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102326 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…and reassurance seeking–is associated with panic buying, excessive avoidance of public places, and maladaptive attempts at coping (e.g., over-eating and increased consumption of alcohol and drugs) (Taylor, Landry, Paluszek, Rachor, & Asmundson, 2020; Taylor, Landry, Paluszek, McKay et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationValidation of the Impact of Event Scale With Modifications for COVID-19 (IES-COVID19)
Vanaken, L., Scheveneels, S., Belmans, E., & Hermans, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00738 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“Several other questionnaires have been developed to measure psychological reactions in the context of the COVID-19 outbreak, for instance the Fear of COVID-19 Scale [FCV-19S: (42)] and the COVID Stress Scales [CSS: (43)].”
BackgroundWarren, A. M., Zolfaghari, K., Fresnedo, M., Bennett, M., Pogue, J. R., Waddimba, A. C., Zvolensky, M. J., Carlbring, P., & Powers, M. B. (2021) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2021.1874505 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“We followed the data quality standards previously published (Shevlin et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
MethodSchimmenti, A., Starčević, V., Giardina, A., Khazaal, Y., & Billieux, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00748 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Even though the MAC-RF is not the first measure that was developed to assess COVID-19-related fears (13, 23), it might have some theoretical and clinical advantages over other dedicated instruments.”
BackgroundStangier, U., Kananian, S., & Schüller, J. S. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01456-6 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“The lack of immunity and vaccines against the virus, its exponential spread and high mortality, and the uncertainties concerning etiology and course, contribute to the perception of a largely uncontrollable and unpredictable threat (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020a).”
BackgroundResultCovid stress predicts depression, anxiety and stress symptoms of Filipino respondents
Montano, R. L. T., & Acebes, K. M. L. (2020) · International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478) · doi:10.20525/ijrbs.v9i4.773 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Taylor et al. (2020) proposed the people will feel a pandemic related anxiety which he called “COVID Stress”.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChen, X., Zou, Y., & Gao, H. (2021) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102532 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Brown, G., & Greenfield, P. M. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.246 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Nguyen, T. M., & Le, G. N. H. (2021) · Traumatology An International Journal · doi:10.1037/trm0000295 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Krampe, H., Danbolt, L. J., Haver, A., Stålsett, G., & Schnell, T. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03418-5 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Chiu, W., Oh, G., & Cho, H. (2021) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.1998 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“, 2021), anxiety (Lee, 2020), and stress (Taylor et al., 2020), to explore their impacts on purchase behavior.”
BackgroundKhosravani, V., Asmundson, G. J. G., Taylor, S. J., Bastan, F. S., & Ardestani, S. M. S. (2020) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2020.100615 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“…with other ADs, putting them at high risk for COVID Stress Syndrome (Asmundson et al., 2020; Khosravani, Ardestani, et al., under revision; Taylor et al., 2020b) and COVID Stress Disorder (i.e., high levels of COVID-related stress combined with functional limitations; Asmundson and Taylor, 2020b).”
BackgroundTakmaz, T., Gündoğmuş, İ., Ökten, S. B., & Gündüz, A. (2021) · Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology research · doi:10.1111/jog.14900 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“The scale was developed by Taylor et al.24 CSS aims to measure the stress and anxiety symptoms specific to the current outbreak.”
MethodLife in a post-pandemic world: What to expect of anxiety-related conditions and their treatment
Taylor, S. J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102231 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Gündoğan, S. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01525-w · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Fernández‐Aranda, F., Munguía, L., Mestre‐Bach, G., Steward, T., Etxandi, M., Baenas, I., Granero, R., Sánchez, I., Ortega, E., Andreu, A., et al. (2020) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2784 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“, 2020) and the COVID Stress Scales (CSS; (Taylor et al., 2020), including COVID danger and contamination fears, COVID fears about economic consequences, COVID xenophobia, COVID compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and COVID traumatic stress symptoms.”
BackgroundLandi, G., Pakenham, K. I., Crocetti, E., Tossani, E., & Grandi, S. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.067 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Mertens, G., Duijndam, S., Smeets, T., & Lodder, P. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102415 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“…and clinicians have warned that the COVID-19 pandemic may lead to further mental health issues such as anxiety-related disorders, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and post-traumatic stress (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020; Galea et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2020; Satici, Saricali, et al., 2020).”
Jaffe, A. E., Graupensperger, S. A., Blayney, J. A., Duckworth, J. C., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2022) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.01.038 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“COVID-19-related stress was assessed with the COVID Stress Scales [73].”
Predicting hospitality employees’ safety performance behaviors in the COVID-19 pandemic
Kim, S., Kim, P. B., & Lee, G. (2020) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102797 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
COVID-19 Phobia in the United States: Validation of the COVID-19 Phobia Scale (C19P-SE)
Arpacı, İ., Karataş, K., Балоглу, М., & Haktanır, A. (2021) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1848945 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Finally, Taylor et al. (2020) developed a 36-item COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure the COVIDrelated anxiety and stress.”
MethodCori, L., Curzio, O., Adorni, F., Prinelli, F., Noale, M., Trevisan, C., Fortunato, L., Giacomelli, A., & Bianchi, F. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18063248 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Fear is in any case a subjective conscious experience linked to numerous psychological and sociological factors [4,15,16].”
BackgroundSocial factors and worry associated with COVID-19: Evidence from a large survey in China
Zhou, M., & Guo, W. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113934 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“It may cause people to engage in socially disruptive behaviors, including panic buying, mistrusting and blaming others, and misinterpreting minor symptoms as signs of infection and surging unnecessarily into (and thus overwhelming) hospitals and clinics (Asmundson and Taylor, 2020; Taylor, 2019).”
Factors Associated with Psychological Distress and Physical Activity During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Sfendla, A., & Hadrya, F. (2020) · Health Security · doi:10.1089/hs.2020.0062 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“7”
Asquini, G., Bianchi, A. E., Borromeo, G., Locatelli, M., & Falla, D. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245999 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“In our study, we also selected to consider the CSS in relation to the COVID-19 lockdown period (90 days, from March 2020 to the end of May 2020) and not to the last week as reported in the English version [53].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDadaczynski, K., Okan, O., Messer, M., & Rathmann, K. (2021) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daab070 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Studies from the USA, Canada and the Philippines found that stress caused by COVID-19 was associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression (Montano and Acebes, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCOVID-19 Fear, Resilience, Social Support, Anxiety, and Suicide among College Students in Spain
Rodríguez, J. M., Caravaca-Sánchez, F., & Fernández-Prados, J. S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18158156 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Taylor and colleagues [46] showed five factors of stress and worries relating to COVID-19: (1) danger and fear of infection, (2) fears about economic consequences, (3) xenophobia, (4) compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and (5) traumatic stress symptoms.”
BackgroundMeasuring the Impact of COVID-19 on Mental Health: A Scoping Review of the Existing Scales
Chandu, V. C., Marella, Y., Panga, G. S. K., Pachava, S., & Vadapalli, V. (2020) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1177/0253717620946439 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
An Exploration of Work-Life Wellness and Remote Work During and Beyond COVID-19
Como, R., Hambley, L. A., & Domene, J. F. (2021) · The Journal of Macrodynamic Analysis (Memorial University of Newfoundland) · doi:10.82396/cjcd.v20i1.3163 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Measuring COVID-19-Related Stress Among 4th Through 12th Grade Students
Styck, K. M., Malecki, C., Ogg, J. A., & Demaray, M. K. (2021) · School psychology review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2020.1857658 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“These criteria included parallel analysis, the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1980).”
MethodFamily medicine practitioners’ stress during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional survey
Dutour, M., Kirchhoff, A., Janssen, C., Meleze, S., Chevalier, H., Levy-Amon, S., Détrez, M.-A., Piet, E., & Delory, T. (2021) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-021-01382-3 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Fear, Stress, and Knowledge regarding COVID-19 in Nursing Students and Recent Graduates in Mexico
Fernández, I. A. M., Carreño-Moreno, S., Chaparro-Díaz, L., Gallegos-Torres, R. M., Fernández, J. A. M., & Martínez, E. K. H. (2021) · Investigación y Educación en Enfermería · doi:10.17533/udea.iee.v39n1e05 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
COVID-19 stress and substance use: Current issues and future preparations
McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102274 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Does COVID‐19 count?: Defining Criterion A trauma for diagnosing PTSD during a global crisis
Norrholm, S. D., Zalta, A. K., Zoellner, L. A., Powers, A. D., Tull, M. T., Reist, C., Schnurr, P. P., Weathers, F. W., & Friedman, M. J. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23209 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Relationship between the fear of COVID-19 disease and sleep quality: the mediating role of stress
Siddique, R. F., Ahmed, O., & Hossain, K. N. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07033 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Besides the threat to physical health, the current pandemic increases the perceived stress level and subsequent psychological problems, such as, anxiety and depression (Harper et al., 2020; Pakpour and Grif fi ths, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
Thai, T. T., Le, P. T. V., Huynh, Q. N. H., Pham, P. T. T., & Bui, H. H. T. (2021) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s317059 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Boekhorst, M. G. B. M., Muskens, L., Hulsbosch, L. P., Deun, K. V., Bergink, V., Pop, V. J. M., & van den Heuvel, M. I. (2021) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-021-01104-9 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Coco, G. L., Gentile, A., Bosnar, K., Milovanović, I., Bianco, A., Drid, P., & Pišot, S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052586 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“People with an excessive fear of the infectious outbreak are more likely to report greater psychosocial distress, whereas people showing little anxiety are more likely to disregard the physical distancing [20,24].”
BackgroundAssessing the fear of COVID-19 among different populations: A response to Ransing et al. (2020)
Pakpour, A. H., Griffiths, M. D., Chang, K., Chen, Y., Kuo, Y., & Lin, C. (2020) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.06.006 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Olapegba, P. O., Chovwen, C., Ayandele, O., & Ramos‐Vera, C. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00557-4 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Albery, I. P., Spada, M. M., & Nikčević, A. V. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2639 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“, 2020), stress (Taylor et al., 2020) and an anxiety syndrome characterized by avoidance, checking, worrying and threat monitoring (Nikčevi c & Received: 6 May 2021 Revised: 14 June 2021 Accepted: 14 June 2021”
Background
- Authors
- Taylor, S., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., Fergus, T. A., McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- University of Regina (CA)
- Baylor University (US)
- Fordham University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Asmundson, Gordon J.G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 72
- Pages
- 102232
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7198206
- OpenAlex
- W3020973746
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 219 · 2022: 270 · 2021: 344 · 2020: 123 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 95.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Fordham Research Commons (Fordham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- COVID Stress Scale, COVID-19 pandemic, pandemic stress, anxiety, fear of contamination, economic impact of pandemic, compulsive checking, reassurance seeking, traumatic stress symptoms, scale development, scale validation, mental health screening
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Canada, Fear, Female, Health Services Needs and Demand, Humans, Male, Mental Health Services, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychometrics, Stress, Psychological, Reproducibility of Results, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
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