Highly fluorinated chemicals in functional textiles can be replaced by re-evaluating liquid repellency and end-user requirements
Open accessAbstract
Ongoing regulation of, and concerns regarding, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (also popularly known as “highly fluorinated chemicals”), has driven the textile market to search for sustainable alternative chemistries that can provide similar liquid repellency to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in performance textiles. This paper aims to inform the potential substitution of fluorochemicals with more environmentally friendly durable water repellents, taking a case-by-case approach and evaluating protection needs for consumer outdoor clothing and medical protective clothing separately. Recently developed non-fluorinated durable water repellents, some based on green chemistry principles, were evaluated in an in-depth assessment for their functionality against fluorinated short-chain alternatives (with hydro-and oleophobic moieties of carbon chain length of six or less). Repellency towards water and non-polar liquids was evaluated with established standard test methods and by measuring the roll-off angle of liquid droplets with a novel sample holder setup. This improved method allowed an enhanced mechanistic understanding of the droplets’ roll-off processes on woven textiles. The best non-fluorinated alternatives demonstrated high water repellency equal to fluorinated side-chain polymers with 'short' fluorinated carbon chains ≤6 carbons, and should be considered as suitable substitutes for consumer outdoor clothing. These results are supported by a survey of end-use requirements indicating water repellency and durability were the most important purchasing criteria. For polar liquids, with lower surface tensions, the repellency provided by non-fluorinated alternatives was clearly reduced, although they had a moderate repellency towards liquids with intermediate polarity (e.g. red wine or synthetic blood). Only fluorinated side-chain polymers with 'short' fluorinated carbon chains ≤6 carbons were seen to provide sufficient protection to polar liquids with very low surface tension (olive oil or gastric fluid). Since occupational protective clothing (e.g. medical clothing) often must provide protection against liquid of a wider range of polarities (e.g. in the case of medical clothing, to bodily fluids and protect the wearer from the transmission of diseases), current non-fluorinated DWRs do not provide sufficient liquid repellency. This implies that innovations in textile technology are still needed to substitute PFASs in some types of occupational protective clothing and other end uses where oil and stain repellency is essential.
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Due to the durability of PFASs, their widespread presence, and continued use, humans and wildlife remain exposed.
“However, due to the durability of PFASs, their widespread presence, and continued use, humans and wildlife remain exposed [4,5].”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
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“…for numerous applications, ranging from simple waterproof cycling suits to personal protective equipment that shields against hazardous liquids [94, The key to water repellency is based on the surface tension value of the fabric, which does not allow the fabric to become wet as long as it is…”
BackgroundHolmquist, H., Roos, S., Schellenberger, S., Jönsson, C., & Peters, G. M. (2021) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129661 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“1 and Schellenberger, 2019), and used to guide the selection of DWR systems for further study with LCA.”
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Durable water- and oil-repellent textiles without long- or short-chain perfluoroalkylated substances
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Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS
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“However, due to the durability of PFASs, their widespread presence, and continued use, humans and wildlife remain exposed [4,5].”
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Hidden Contaminants: The Presence of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Remote Regions
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Durable water and oil repellents along with green chemistries: an overview
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“These pivotal functional properties prodigiously increase their utilization in rainwear, sportswear, industrial end-products, medical equipment, and household applications (Schellenberger et al. 2019; Suryaprabha and Sethuraman 2017).”
BackgroundSustainable Materials for Liquid Repellent Coatings
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“This is not a sustainable situation, and therefore a transition to a less harmful and biobased solution is necessary [3].”
BackgroundMinimizing the Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances for Textured Wetting-Resistant Surfaces
Alipanahrostami, M., Coolidge, C., Wang, Y., Wang, W., & Tong, T. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.4c08343 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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Development of Bio and Non-Fluorinated Palmitic Acid Based Water Repellent for Cotton Fabric
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“However, nonfluorinated durable alternatives provide reasonable water repellency but no or limited oil repellency (Schellenberger et al. 2019).”
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Plant defensive responses to insect eggs are inducible by general egg-associated elicitors
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“In addition to protein receptor-mediated recognition 59,60 , also the disturbance of the plant membrane architecture has been suggested to elicit defensive responses 61,62 .”
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Mechanically Robust and Flame-Retardant Superhydrophobic Textiles with Anti-Biofouling Performance
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“212,213 Often used terms are hydrophobic and oleo-phobic properties.”
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“Hence, C8‐PFAS coatings, as applied on textiles, are superior to coatings with shorter chain lengths such as C6 and C4 [65, 84].”
Processing techniques and test methods of protective textiles
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“Palmitic acid imparts the water repellency, but it is nondurable and requires the addition of some additional substances (Schellenberger et al. 2019; Sharif et al. 2021).”
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“Therefore, the durability of the FU finish was significantly better than what has been reported in previous studies [9,12,25].”
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Detection and diversity of fluorinated oil‐ and water‐repellent coatings on apparel fibers
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Water-Repellent Spray for Textiles Using Plant Waste from Conifer Trees
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“In outdoor textiles such as tents, jackets, and gear designed for extreme conditions, hydrophobic surfaces improve weather resistance and wearer comfort by minimizing water absorption while maintaining breathability [30].”
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Eco Textiles: The Present and the Future
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Strategies for Dealing with Substances of Concern in Product Design – a Review of Five Cases
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“Existing literature underscores that companies are motivated to adopt sustainable practices due to a combination of economic, regulatory, social, technological, and environmental factors, which can be both internal and external to the organization (Schellenberger et al., 2019).”
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“Introduction Functional clothing can be defined as textile materials with integrated properties, such as antimicrobial, antistatic, electrically conductive, fireretardant, thermoregulating self-cleaning, and chromic textiles [1-21].”
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“24,25 Another most important drawbacks of such multi-layered laminated technologies are the complexity of production which often involves multiple procedures with each associated process adding further cost to the fi nal apparels, more solid product waste and additional energy consumption.”
BackgroundExtractable Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Menstrual Underwear
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“…intentional addition of per-and poly fl uoroalkyl substances (PFAS) to menstrual underwear could help to achieve uniform liquid distribution (Gaines, 2023), enhancing absorbency and comfort while preventing fabrics from becoming saturated and maintaining breathability (Schellenberger et al., 2019).”
InfluentialPuttamreddy, S., Ramesh, S. B., Nippatlapalli, N., & Allabakshi, S. M. (2024) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2024.115114 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Designing Non-fluorinated Durable Stain-resistant Textiles
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“Due to the regulations and concerns over the use of PFASs, the textile market has started to research more into replacements for PFASs that can provide similar properties [5].”
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- Authors
- Schellenberger, S., Hill, P. J., Levenstam, O., Gillgard, P., Cousins, I. T., Taylor, M., & Blackburn, R. S.
- Affiliations
- Stockholm University (SE)
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University of Borås (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Cousins, Ian T.
- Blackburn, Richard S.
- Venue
- Journal of Cleaner Production
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-04
- Volume
- 217
- Pages
- 134-143
- ISSN
- 0959-6526 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2914029581
- Cited by
- 96
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 3.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Cleaner Production (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Diva portal (Dalarna University Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (2012-2148)
- Stockholm County Council and Stockholm University
- University of Leeds
- University Research Scholarship
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Surfaces, Coatings and Films › Surface Modification and Superhydrophobicity
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Dyeing and Modifying Textile Fibers
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS alternatives, liquid repellency, sliding angle, outdoor clothing, medical protective clothing, green chemistry, end-user needs
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