Nature-based solutions addressing the water-energy-food nexus: Review of theoretical concepts and urban case studies
Open accessAbstract
An increasing world population is projected to increase water, energy and food requirements, three vital resources for humankind. Projected climate change impacts will aggravate water availability, as well as flood risks, especially in urban areas. Nature-based solutions (NBS) have been identified as key concepts to defuse the expected tensions within the Water-Energy-Food (W-E-F) nexus due to their multiple benefits. In this paper, the authors outlined the theories and concepts, analyzed real-life case studies, and discussed the potential of NBS to address the future W-E-F nexus. For this purpose, we performed a systematic literature review on the theories of NBS that address the W-E-F nexus, and we summarized 19 representative real-life case studies to identify the current knowledge gaps and challenges. The quantitative and qualitative data was used to differentiate and discuss the direct and indirect potential benefits of NBS to the W-E-F nexus. The study further expanded on the challenges for the implementation of NBS and highlighted the growing possibilities in the context of circularity and the implementation of NBS in urban planning. It was concluded that the potential impacts of NBS on the W-E-F nexus have been identified, but the quantitative effects have not been analyzed in-depth. Moreover, indicators are mostly single-purpose and not multipurpose, as required to fully characterize the W-E-F nexus and circularity holistically. Overall, there is a need to adopt systemic thinking and promote the multipurpose design of NBS.
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Cross-scale and cross-sector urban planning, such as blue-green infrastructure and food-water-energy nexus planning, is often nonexistent or lacking integration.
“Further, cross-scale and cross-sector urban planning, such as in the case of blue-green infrastructure and food–water–energy nexus planning, is often nonexistent or lacking integration (38, 71).”
From Global synthesis and regional insights for mainstreaming urban nature-based solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [38]
Section 4.2 identifies difficulty scaling local nature-based solutions and integrating site-specific solutions into an interlinked green-infrastructure framework. Section 4.2.2 says these solutions are frequently treated as monofunctional. These passages support a lack of integration in this area, but do not establish that cross-scale and cross-sector urban planning is often nonexistent more generally. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLack of systematic monitoring and evaluation schemes blocks information flows and evidence for making a business case for NbS critical for scaling up implementation.
“This in turn blocks information flows and evidence for making a business case for NbS critical for scaling up implementation (38).”
From Global synthesis and regional insights for mainstreaming urban nature-based solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [38]
Section 4.1 says a lack of information makes NbS benefits difficult to quantify and notes that some implementers do not monitor or assess results. Section 4.2.2 says better economic assessment methods would facilitate upscaling. The paper does not explicitly say that absent monitoring blocks information flows or prevents a business case; that causal formulation is stronger than its account. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGaps in empirical evidence, data, and indicators of NbS functioning prevent accurate parameterization and validation of models and development of future scenarios.
“Further, gaps in empirical evidence, data, and indicators of NbS functioning prevent accurate parameterization and validation of models and development of future scenarios (38, 91).”
From Global synthesis and regional insights for mainstreaming urban nature-based solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [38]
Section 4.1 reports scarce case-study data, limited quantification of NbS benefits, and a lack of standardized indicators. Section 4.2.2 says holistic models are not readily available and discusses assessing different scenarios. Neither section says that these gaps prevent accurate model parameterization or validation, or the development of future scenarios. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGlobal South cities were often noted as locations of knowledge gaps, with regionally appropriate knowledge generally scant on how to adapt local NbS to larger scales.
“Global South cities were often noted as locations of knowledge gaps (27, 34, 37), with regionally appropriate knowledge generally scant on how to adapt local NbS to larger scales (38).”
From Global synthesis and regional insights for mainstreaming urban nature-based solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [38]
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Global synthesis and regional insights for mainstreaming urban nature-based solutions
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“Highlighting the financial and social benefits, as well as understanding possible unintended tradeoffs, is important for the integra - tion of NbS into future planning.”
InfluentialIntegrated approaches to nature-based solutions in Africa: Insights from a bibliometric analysis
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- Authors
- Carvalho, P. N., Finger, D. C., Masi, F., Cipolletta, G., Oral, H. V., Tóth, A., Regelsberger, M., & Exposito, A.
- Affiliations
- Aarhus University (DK)
- Johannes Kepler University of Linz (AT)
- Iridra Srl (Italy) (IT)
- Marche Polytechnic University (IT)
- Istanbul Aydın University (TR)
- Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (SK)
- Corresponding author
- Carvalho, Pedro N.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Cleaner Production
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-03
- Volume
- 338
- Pages
- 130652
- ISSN
- 0959-6526 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4206956731
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 11
- FWCI
- 6.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Cleaner Production (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- European Commission (776665, HORIZON2020, 313011W112)
- Kultúrna a Edukacná Grantová Agentúra MŠVVaŠ SR (-4/2020, 4/2019)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water-Energy-Food Nexus Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Urban Stormwater Management Solutions
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Keywords
- nature-based solutions, water-energy-food nexus, urban water management, urban planning, circularity, climate change impacts, flood risk, multiple benefits, systems thinking
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