The 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak in its historical context.
Abstract
Of the 16 known serotypes of influenza A haemagglutinin, 6 have been isolated from humans at the molecular level (H1, H2, H3, H5, H7, H9). 3 of these have been involved in past pandemics (H1, H2, H3). Traditional pandemic surveillance has focussed on monitoring antigenic shift, meaning the re-assortment of novel haemagglutinins into seasonal human influenza A viruses during rare events of double infection with seasonal and zoonotic strains. H5, from avian H5N1 influenza, has been the major cause for concern in recent years. However, the 2009 H1N1 zoonotic event demonstrates that even serotypes already encountered in past human pandemics may constitute new pandemic threats. The protein sequence divergence of the 2009 zoonotic H1 from human seasonal influenza H1 is around 20-24%. A similar level of divergence is found between the 2009 H1 and European swine flu. By contrast, its divergence from North American swine flu strains is around 1-9%. Given that the divergence between H1 and its nearest serotype neighbour H2 is around 40-46%, the 2009 H1 may be broadly considered as halfway towards a new serotype. The current situation is one of antigenic pseudo-shift.
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Global death toll estimates for the 1957 pandemic vary between 1.5 million and 2-4 million.
“Although global death toll estimates vary [between 1.5 million (Gatherer, 2009) and 2–4 million (Michaelis et al., 2009)]”
From Secondary bacterial infections associated with influenza pandemics (2017) · cites this paper as Gatherer, 2009
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“Among the six different hemagglutinins, H1, H2 and H3 have been mainly associated with previous pandemics such as ‘Spanish’ influenza (H1N1), ‘Asian’ influenza (H2N2) and ‘Hong Kong’ influenza (H3N2) [26,27].”
Backgroundde Paris, F., Beck, C., Machado, A. B. M. P., Paiva, R. M., Menezes, D. D. S., Nunes, L. D. S., Kuchenbecker, R. D. S., & Barth, A. L. (2012) · Journal of Virological Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.07.008 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The COVID-19 pandemic: the public health reality
Cheema, S., Ameduri, M., Abraham, A., Doraiswamy, S., & Mamtani, R. (2020) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s0950268820002216 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
What's next? Forecasting scientific research trends
Ofer, D., Kaufman, H., & Michal Linial, B. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23781 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This peak in popularity is a reflection of the outbreaks in North America (April 2009), where the new H1N1 influenza virus spread rapidly around the world within a few months [36].”
BackgroundSwine Influenza Virus Antibodies in Humans, Western Europe, 2009
Gerloff, N. A. (2011) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1703100581 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Radosavljević, V., & Belojević, G. (2011) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2011.11.006 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Flynn, P. M., Nachman, S., Muresan, P., Fenton, T., Spector, S. A., Cunningham, C. K., Pass, R. F., Yogev, R., Burchett, S. K., Heckman, B., et al. (2012) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jis360 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“A novel swine-origin influenza A subtype H1N1 virus, designated 2009 H1N1 influenza A, was identified as the cause of pandemic febrile respiratory illnesses [1–4].”
BackgroundGenetic Characterization of Circulating 2015 A(H1N1)pdm09 Influenza Viruses from Eastern India
Mukherjee, A., Nayak, M. K., Dutta, S., Panda, S., Satpathi, B., & Chawla‐Sarkar, M. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168464 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Nie, C., Parshad, B., Bhatia, S., Cheng, C., Stadtmüller, M., Oehrl, A., Kerkhoff, Y., Wolff, T., & Haag, R. (2020) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202004832 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
DAMPs and influenza virus infection in ageing
Samy, R. P., & Lim, L. H. K. (2015) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2015.07.005 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Seasonal, Avian, and Novel H1N1 Influenza: Prevention and Treatment Modalities
Sym, D., Patel, P. N., & Ei-Chaar, G. M. (2009) · Annals of Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1345/aph.1m557 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Mei, S., van de Vijver, D. A. M. C., Xuan, L., Zhu, Y., & Sloot, P. M. A. (2010) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2010.04.187 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“In the 2009 influenza A (H1N1), the virus isolated from patients in the United States was found to be made up of genetic elements from four different flu viruses: North American swine influenza, North American avian influenza, human influenza and swine influenza virus typically found in Asia and Europe – “an unusually…”
BackgroundLuo, Y., Mohan, T., Zhu, W., Wang, C., Deng, L., & Wang, B. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22874-w · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Swine Influenza Virus Antibodies in Humans, Western Europe, 2009
Gerloff, N. A., Kremer, J. R., Charpentier, É., Sausy, A., Olinger, C. M., Weicherding, P., Schuh, J., Reeth, K. V., & Muller, C. P. (2011) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1703.100851 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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Development of a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-based, broadly protective influenza vaccine
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Mitani, S. (2008) · Prehospital and Disaster Medicine · doi:10.1017/s1049023x00024055 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Chest X-ray and CT findings of early H7N9 avian influenza cases
Lin, Z. Q., Xu, X. Q., Zhang, K. B., Zhuang, Z. G., Liu, X. S., Zhao, L. Q., Lin, C. Y., Yang, L., Hua, X. L., Zhao, H., et al. (2014) · Acta Radiologica · doi:10.1177/0284185114535209 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lim, M. L., Lim, W. Y., Tee, N. W. S., Lim, S. H., & Chee, J.-J. (2010) · Annals of the Academy of Medicine Singapore · doi:10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.v39n4p295 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Charania, N. A., & Tsuji, L. J. S. (2014) · International Indigenous Policy Journal · doi:10.18584/iipj.2014.5.3.2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Although the 2009 H1N1 pandemic (A(H1N1)pdm09) was mild compared to previous pandemics (Gatherer, 2009; Reed et al., 2009; Shen, Ma, & Wang, 2009), Indigenous populations residing in remote and/or isolated areas suffered disproportionately, particularly in Canada, the United States, and Australia…”
BackgroundMerry, T. H., & Astrautsova, S. A. (2010) · Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry · doi:10.1042/ba20100010 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Su, C. T.-T., Schönbach, C., & Kwoh, C. K. (2013) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/1471-2105-14-s2-s21 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Sequence analyses showed that the HA sequence of the pandemic 2009-H1N1 underwent an antigenic shift [2] that altered its antigenicity in context of the seasonal flu vaccine.”
Quantitative Raman assays for on-site analysis of stockpiled drugs
Willett, D. R., & Rodriguez, J. D. (2018) · Analytica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.aca.2018.08.026 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Petrovski, B. É., Lumi, X., Znaor, L., Ivastinović, D., Confalonieri, F., Petrovič, M. G., & Petrovski, G. (2020) · Eye · doi:10.1038/s41433-020-0871-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In addition, humanity also witnessed the Russian flue pandemic (1889-1894)-approximately 1 million deaths [4] ; the Asian flu (1957-1958)-between 1.5 and 4 million deaths [5] ; the Hong Kong Flu (1968) (1969) )between 1 and 4 million deaths [6] ; the Russian flu pandemic again (1977) (1978) caused by the same H1N1 vir…”
BackgroundInfluentialGachara, G., Samuel, S., OTIENO, M. F., Japheth, M., Opot, B., & Bulimo, W. (2016) · Infection Genetics and Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2016.02.029 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Influenza A virus (Family Orthomyxoviridae, Genus Influenzavirus A) is the most diverse and epidemiologically significant of all influenza viruses (Gatherer, 2009).”
BackgroundMayet, A., Duron, S., Nivoix, P., Haus-Cheymol, R., Ligier, C., Gache, K., Dia, A., Manet, G., Verret, C., de Santi, V. P., et al. (2011) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2011.04.005 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The new influenza A H1N1 virus: balancing on the interface of humans and animals.
van der Meer, F. J. U. M., Orsel, K., & Barkema, H. W. (2010) · PubMed Central · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Swine-origin H1N1 influenza A virus and dental practice: a critical review
Pitak‐Arnnop, P., Schubert, S., Dhanuthai, K., Sappayatosok, K., Bauer, U. U. I., Ngamwannagul, P., Liebert, U. G., & Hemprich, A. (2010) · Clinical Oral Investigations · doi:10.1007/s00784-009-0373-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Influenza A's pandemic potential results from the absence of life-long immunity in humans [ 8 ].”
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Evolutionary analysis of seasonal influenza A viruses in Pakistan 2020–2023
Badar, N., Ikram, A., Salman, M., Saeed, S., Mirza, H. A., Ahad, A., Umair, M., & Farooq, U. (2024) · Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses · doi:10.1111/irv.13262 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“triple re-assortment of two or more viruses of swine, human and avian origin [1], was first identified in Mexico [2,3].”
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“The 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic, the first of the 21st Century, originated in Mexico and the United States((1,2)).”
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“Severe disease following these zoonotic events has been reported in persons with chronic medical conditions, although most such infections are mild or subclinical [12, 13].”
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“The SC1918 and CA09 H1N1 are zoonotic viruses and known to have originated in pigs and transmitted to humans (Gatherer, 2009; Sriwilaijaroen & Suzuki, 2012).”
BackgroundCui, Q., Wu, Z., Jin, Y., Zhu, J., Yu, W., Bao, T., Wen, W., Zhang, X., & Wang, S. (2025) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.5c01776 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Humoral Response to the Acetalated Dextran M2e Vaccine is Enhanced by Antigen Surface Conjugation
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Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Disease Threats
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El SARS-CoV-2 y otros virus emergentes y su relación con la inocuidad en la cadena alimentaria
Silva-Jaimes, M. I. (2020) · Scientia Agropecuaria · doi:10.17268/sci.agropecu.2020.02.15 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Para que la tragedia se desatara, lo más probable es que se haya producido el intercambio genético entre los virus de la influenza de cisnes, cerdos y humanos durante algún tiempo (Lyn, 2009; Gatherer, 2009).”
Background
- Authors
- Gatherer, D.
- Affiliations
- MRC University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gatherer, Derek
- ORCID
- Gatherer, Derek
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Virology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-07
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 174-178
- ISSN
- 1386-6532 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2046803831
- Cited by
- 227
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 20.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Virology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Influenza Virus Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Virology and Viral Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Respiratory viral infections research
- Keywords
- 2009 H1N1 influenza, pandemic influenza, zoonotic influenza, antigenic shift, antigenic drift, hemagglutinin, swine influenza, H5N1, pandemic surveillance, protein divergence
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Disease Outbreaks, Humans, Influenza, Human, Swine, Reassortant Viruses, Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus, Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype
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