Cited by 230Influenza Virus Research StudiesVirology and Viral DiseasesRespiratory viral infections research

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The 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak in its historical context.

Gatherer, Derek·2009·Journal of Clinical Virology

DOI 10.1016/j.jcv.2009.06.004

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Abstract

Of the 16 known serotypes of influenza A haemagglutinin, 6 have been isolated from humans at the molecular level (H1, H2, H3, H5, H7, H9). 3 of these have been involved in past pandemics (H1, H2, H3). Traditional pandemic surveillance has focussed on monitoring antigenic shift, meaning the re-assortment of novel haemagglutinins into seasonal human influenza A viruses during rare events of double infection with seasonal and zoonotic strains. H5, from avian H5N1 influenza, has been the major cause for concern in recent years. However, the 2009 H1N1 zoonotic event demonstrates that even serotypes already encountered in past human pandemics may constitute new pandemic threats. The protein sequence divergence of the 2009 zoonotic H1 from human seasonal influenza H1 is around 20-24%. A similar level of divergence is found between the 2009 H1 and European swine flu. By contrast, its divergence from North American swine flu strains is around 1-9%. Given that the divergence between H1 and its nearest serotype neighbour H2 is around 40-46%, the 2009 H1 may be broadly considered as halfway towards a new serotype. The current situation is one of antigenic pseudo-shift.

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Background
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Nanotechnology based solutions to combat zoonotic viruses with special attention to SARS, MERS, and COVID 19: Detection, protection and medication
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“Among the six different hemagglutinins, H1, H2 and H3 have been mainly associated with previous pandemics such as ‘Spanish’ influenza (H1N1), ‘Asian’ influenza (H2N2) and ‘Hong Kong’ influenza (H3N2) [26,27].”
Background
Optimization of one-step duplex real-time RT-PCR for detection of influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in nasopharyngeal aspirates
de Paris, F., Beck, C., Machado, A. B. M. P., Paiva, R. M., Menezes, D. D. S., Nunes, L. D. S., Kuchenbecker, R. D. S., & Barth, A. L. (2012) · Journal of Virological Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.07.008 · Cited by 25
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Swine Influenza Virus Antibodies in Humans, Western Europe, 2009
Gerloff, N. A. (2011) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1703100581 · Cited by 23
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Safety and Immunogenicity of 2009 Pandemic H1N1 Influenza Vaccination in Perinatally HIV-1-Infected Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults
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“A novel swine-origin influenza A subtype H1N1 virus, designated 2009 H1N1 influenza A, was identified as the cause of pandemic febrile respiratory illnesses [1–4].”
Background
Genetic Characterization of Circulating 2015 A(H1N1)pdm09 Influenza Viruses from Eastern India
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“In the 2009 influenza A (H1N1), the virus isolated from patients in the United States was found to be made up of genetic elements from four different flu viruses: North American swine influenza, North American avian influenza, human influenza and swine influenza virus typically found in Asia and Europe – “an unusually…”
Background
Sequential Immunizations with heterosubtypic virus-like particles elicit cross protection against divergent influenza A viruses in mice
Luo, Y., Mohan, T., Zhu, W., Wang, C., Deng, L., & Wang, B. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22874-w · Cited by 19
Swine Influenza Virus Antibodies in Humans, Western Europe, 2009
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Development of a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-based, broadly protective influenza vaccine
Uchida, T. (2010) · Microbiology and Immunology · doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2010.00273.x · Cited by 17
Comparative Analysis of the Japanese Version of the Revised Impact of Event Scale: A Study of Firefighters
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Chest X-ray and CT findings of early H7N9 avian influenza cases
Lin, Z. Q., Xu, X. Q., Zhang, K. B., Zhuang, Z. G., Liu, X. S., Zhao, L. Q., Lin, C. Y., Yang, L., Hua, X. L., Zhao, H., et al. (2014) · Acta Radiologica · doi:10.1177/0284185114535209 · Cited by 16
Obstetric Outcomes of Influenza A H1N1 (2009) Infection in Pregnancy – Experience of a Singapore Tertiary Hospital
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Recommended Mitigation Measures for an Influenza Pandemic in Remote and Isolated First Nations Communities of Ontario, Canada: A Community-Based Participatory Research Approach
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“Although the 2009 H1N1 pandemic (A(H1N1)pdm09) was mild compared to previous pandemics (Gatherer, 2009; Reed et al., 2009; Shen, Ma, & Wang, 2009), Indigenous populations residing in remote and/or isolated areas suffered disproportionately, particularly in Canada, the United States, and Australia…”
Background
Alternative approaches to antiviral treatments: focusing on glycosylation as a target for antiviral therapy
Merry, T. H., & Astrautsova, S. A. (2010) · Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry · doi:10.1042/ba20100010 · Cited by 16
Molecular docking analysis of 2009-H1N1 and 2004-H5N1 influenza virus HLA-B*4405-restricted HA epitope candidates: implications for TCR cross-recognition and vaccine development
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“Sequence analyses showed that the HA sequence of the pandemic 2009-H1N1 underwent an antigenic shift [2] that altered its antigenicity in context of the seasonal flu vaccine.”
Quantitative Raman assays for on-site analysis of stockpiled drugs
Willett, D. R., & Rodriguez, J. D. (2018) · Analytica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.aca.2018.08.026 · Cited by 16
Reorganize and survive—a recommendation for healthcare services affected by COVID-19—the ophthalmology experience
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“In addition, humanity also witnessed the Russian flue pandemic (1889-1894)-approximately 1 million deaths [4] ; the Asian flu (1957-1958)-between 1.5 and 4 million deaths [5] ; the Hong Kong Flu (1968) (1969) )between 1 and 4 million deaths [6] ; the Russian flu pandemic again (1977) (1978) caused by the same H1N1 vir…”
BackgroundInfluential
Whole genome characterization of human influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses isolated from Kenya during the 2009 pandemic
Gachara, G., Samuel, S., OTIENO, M. F., Japheth, M., Opot, B., & Bulimo, W. (2016) · Infection Genetics and Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2016.02.029 · Cited by 15
“Influenza A virus (Family Orthomyxoviridae, Genus Influenzavirus A) is the most diverse and epidemiologically significant of all influenza viruses (Gatherer, 2009).”
Background
Novel influenza A(H1N1) outbreak among French armed forces in 2009: Results of Military Influenza Surveillance System
Mayet, A., Duron, S., Nivoix, P., Haus-Cheymol, R., Ligier, C., Gache, K., Dia, A., Manet, G., Verret, C., de Santi, V. P., et al. (2011) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2011.04.005 · Cited by 14
The new influenza A H1N1 virus: balancing on the interface of humans and animals.
van der Meer, F. J. U. M., Orsel, K., & Barkema, H. W. (2010) · PubMed Central · Cited by 14
Swine-origin H1N1 influenza A virus and dental practice: a critical review
Pitak‐Arnnop, P., Schubert, S., Dhanuthai, K., Sappayatosok, K., Bauer, U. U. I., Ngamwannagul, P., Liebert, U. G., & Hemprich, A. (2010) · Clinical Oral Investigations · doi:10.1007/s00784-009-0373-2 · Cited by 13
“Influenza A's pandemic potential results from the absence of life-long immunity in humans [ 8 ].”
Background
Sustained delivery of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide by acetalated dextran microparticles augments effector response to Computationally Optimized Broadly Reactive Antigen (COBRA) influenza hemagglutinin
Batty, C. J., Amouzougan, E. A., Carlock, M. A., Ross, T. M., Bachelder, E. M., & Ainslie, K. M. (2022) · International Journal of Pharmaceutics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.122429 · Cited by 12
Evolutionary analysis of seasonal influenza A viruses in Pakistan 2020–2023
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Cristiani, C., Tuccori, M., Pepe, P., Sarteschi, A., Maddalo, F., Simonini, G., Michi, P., Consigli, V., Fornai, M., Antonioli, L., et al. (2011) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.02.068 · Cited by 11
“triple re-assortment of two or more viruses of swine, human and avian origin [1], was first identified in Mexico [2,3].”
Background
Manifestações clínicas, desfechos e fatores prognósticos da influenza pandêmica A (H1N1) de 2009 em crianças
Lenzi, L., de Mello, Â. M., da Silva, L. R., Grochocki, M. H. C., & Pontarolo, R. (2012) · Revista Paulista de Pediatria · doi:10.1590/s0103-05822012000300007 · Cited by 11
“The 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic, the first of the 21st Century, originated in Mexico and the United States((1,2)).”
Seroprevalence of influenza A virus in pigs and low risk of acute respiratory illness among pig workers in Kenya
Osoro, E., Lidechi, S., Marwanga, D., Nyaundi, J., Mwatondo, A. J., Muturi, M., Ng’ang’a, Z., & Njenga, K. (2019) · Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12199-019-0808-6 · Cited by 11
“Severe disease following these zoonotic events has been reported in persons with chronic medical conditions, although most such infections are mild or subclinical [12, 13].”
Background
Computational studies of pandemic 1918 and 2009 H1N1 hemagglutinins bound to avian and human receptor analogs
Kannan, S., & Kolandaivel, P. (2015) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2015.1027737 · Cited by 11
“The SC1918 and CA09 H1N1 are zoonotic viruses and known to have originated in pigs and transmitted to humans (Gatherer, 2009; Sriwilaijaroen & Suzuki, 2012).”
Background
Photoactive Covalent Organic Framework-Modulated Zinc–Air Battery Self-Powered Biosensor for Detecting Hemagglutinin Protein of H1N1 Influenza Virus
Cui, Q., Wu, Z., Jin, Y., Zhu, J., Yu, W., Bao, T., Wen, W., Zhang, X., & Wang, S. (2025) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.5c01776 · Cited by 10
Humoral Response to the Acetalated Dextran M2e Vaccine is Enhanced by Antigen Surface Conjugation
Batty, C. J., Pena, E. S., Amouzougan, E. A., Moore, K. M., Ainslie, K. M., & Bachelder, E. M. (2023) · Bioconjugate Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.3c00223 · Cited by 10
Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Disease Threats
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El SARS-CoV-2 y otros virus emergentes y su relación con la inocuidad en la cadena alimentaria
Silva-Jaimes, M. I. (2020) · Scientia Agropecuaria · doi:10.17268/sci.agropecu.2020.02.15 · Cited by 12
“Para que la tragedia se desatara, lo más probable es que se haya producido el intercambio genético entre los virus de la influenza de cisnes, cerdos y humanos durante algún tiempo (Lyn, 2009; Gatherer, 2009).”
Background

Authors: Gatherer, D.
Affiliations: MRC University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (GB)
Corresponding author: Gatherer, Derek
ORCID: Gatherer, Derek
Venue: Journal of Clinical Virology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-07
Volume: 45
Issue: 3
Pages: 174-178
ISSN: 1386-6532 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2009.06.004
OpenAlex: W2046803831
Cited by: 227
References: 11
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 20.59
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Clinical Virology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Influenza Virus Research Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Virology and Viral Diseases
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Respiratory viral infections research
Keywords: 2009 H1N1 influenza, pandemic influenza, zoonotic influenza, antigenic shift, antigenic drift, hemagglutinin, swine influenza, H5N1, pandemic surveillance, protein divergence
MeSH terms: Animals, Disease Outbreaks, Humans, Influenza, Human, Swine, Reassortant Viruses, Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus, Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype

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The 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak in its historical context.

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