Besides navigation accuracy: Gender differences in strategy selection and level of spatial confidence
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Several papers have found women use different, often piecemeal, strategies in spatial tasks.
“Several papers have found women use different, often piecemeal, strategies in spatial tasks (Cherney & Collaer, 2005;Heil & Jansen-Osmann, 2008;Picucci et al., 2011)”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Picucci et al., 2011
Self-confidence has received support in mediating the relationship between gender and performance on spatial tests.
“Self-confidence has received support in mediating the relationship between gender and performance on spatial tests (Arrighi & Hausmann, 2022;Cooke-Simpson & Voyer, 2007;Picucci et al., 2011).”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Picucci et al., 2011
Cites
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Accounts of the confidence-accuracy relation in recognition memory
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Confidence and gender differences on the Mental Rotations Test
Cooke-Simpson, A., & Voyer, D. (2007) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.009 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
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Wayfinding in Interior Environments: An Integrative Review
Jamshidi, S., Ensafi, M., & Pati, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.549628 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Working Memory and Strategy Use Contribute to Gender Differences in Spatial Ability
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“, 2012) and to feel less confident in their navigational ability regardless of skill level (Kolakowski & Malina, 1974; Devlin & Bernstein, 1995; Schmitz, 1997; Lawton & Kallai, 2002; Picucci et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSex differences in confidence influence patterns of conformity
Cross, C., Brown, G., Morgan, T., & Laland, K. (2017) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12232 · Cited by 51
Palmiero, M., Nori, R., Rogolino, C., D'Amico, S., & Piccardi, L. (2016) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-016-4643-3 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Previous studies revealed that women are generally more anxious than men while performing on navigational tasks (Lawton 1994, 1996) and less confident in their ability to solve spatial environmental tasks, for example mental rotation tasks (e.g. Picucci et al. 2011).”
BackgroundReorientation Deficits Are Associated With Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment
Caffò, A., Caro, M. D. D., Picucci, L., Notarnicola, A., Settanni, A., Livrea, P., Lancioni, G., & Bosco, A. (2012) · American Journal of Alzheimers Disease & Other Dementias · doi:10.1177/1533317512452035 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Reorientation tasks, especially in 3-demensional (3D) virtual version, have already been demonstrated effective and consistent in discriminating men and women and also in healthy young and old people.(35,37,38) Knowledge about virtual reorientation tasks has recently been further improved by Sutton et al,(39) which pr…”
BackgroundSelf-citationImproving Hazard Map Comprehension for Protective Action Decision Making
Lindell, M. (2020) · Frontiers of Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2020.00027 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Lighting, colour and geometry: Which has the greatest influence on students' cognitive processes?
Nolé Fajardo, M. L., Higuera-Trujillo, J. L., & Llinares, C. (2023) · Frontiers of Architectural Research · doi:10.1016/j.foar.2023.02.003 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
I believe I’m good at orienting myself… But is that true?
Nori, R., & Piccardi, L. (2015) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-015-0655-3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Walkowiak, S., Coutrot, A., Hegarty, M., Velasco, P., Wiener, J., Dalton, R., Hölscher, C., Hornberger, M., Spiers, H., & Manley, E. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30937-w · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Munoz-Montoya, F., Fidalgo, C., Juan, M., & Méndez-López, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00113 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…being more anxious than men when wayfinding (Lawton, 1994, 1996; Schmitz, 1997; Schug, 2016) and having less self-confidence to solve spatial tasks (Picucci et al., 2011; Nori and Piccardi, 2015), they perform comparably and achieve similar results as men in spatial tasks such as mental rotation…”
ResultCaffò, A., Lopez, A., Spano, G., Saracino, G., Stasolla, F., Ciriello, G., Grattagliano, I., Lancioni, G., & Bosco, A. (2016) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-016-0580-z · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationSex Differences in Mobility and Spatial Cognition
Vashro, L., Padilla, L. M. K., & Cashdan, E. (2016) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-015-9247-2 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Women also report higher levels of spatial anxiety than men and are less confident in their navigational ability (Devlin and Bernstein 1995; Lawton 1994; Picucci et al. 2011).”
Augmented Reality Based on SLAM to Assess Spatial Short-Term Memory
Munoz-Montoya, F., Juan, M., Méndez-López, M., & Fidalgo, C. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2886627 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Intervention strategies for spatial orientation disorders in dementia: A selective review
Caffò, A., Hoogeveen, F., Groenendaal, M., Perilli, A. V., Picucci, L., Lancioni, G., & Bosco, A. (2014) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3109/17518423.2012.749951 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Finally, the evaluation of spatial domain, also recurring to computer-aided assessment methodologies [62–65], could supplement the conventional neuropsychological assessment in order to fulfill the requirements of the evidence-based approach.”
MethodSelf-citationMotivation moderates gender differences in navigation performance
Schinazi, V. R., Meloni, D., Grübel, J., Angus, D., Baumann, O., Weibel, R., Jeszenszky, P., Hoelscher, C., & Thrash, T. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43241-4 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Spatial reorientation decline in aging: the combination of geometry and landmarks
Caffò, A., Lopez, A., Spano, G., Serino, S., Cipresso, P., Stasolla, F., Savino, M., Lancioni, G., Riva, G., & Bosco, A. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2017.1354973 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationOrientation and metacognition in virtual space.
Tenbrink, T., & Salwiczek, L. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000178 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Because of earlier results on differences between men and women in spatial orientation and strategies (e.g. Goeke et al. 2015; Hegarty et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2007; Moffat et al., 1998; Picucci et al., 2011), we addressed the distribution of response strategies according to gender.”
ResultSex Differences in Spatial Memory: Comparison of Three Tasks Using the Same Virtual Context
Tascón, L., Cicco, C. D., Piccardi, L., Palmiero, M., Bocchi, A., & Cimadevilla, J. (2021) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci11060757 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Furthermore, there are a great number of factors related to the task design that must be considered to correctly interpret the spatial behavior, such as the environment [32]; the time available to memorize the scenery [31,33]; the level of difficulty [34–37]; the visual perspective taken of the scenery or alignment ef…”
BackgroundPicucci, L., Gyselinck, V., Piolino, P., Nicolas, S., & Bosco, A. (2013) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2909 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effect of Aging on Memory for Recent and Remote Egocentric and Allocentric Information
Lopez, A., Caffò, A., Spano, G., & Bosco, A. (2018) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2018.1560117 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationYang, Y.-Y., & Merrill, E. (2016) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0626-x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Orientation strategies are generally considered a more sophisticated spatial approach to wayfinding in that they involve integrating spatial knowledge acquired at different times, transforming it into a cognitive map, and maintaining a sense of one’s own location in relation to the environment (Italy: Bosco et al. 200…”
BackgroundGender differences in metacognitive judgments and performance on a goal-directed wayfinding task
Lemieux, C. L., Collin, C. A., & Watier, N. N. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2019.1625905 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Object-spatial imagery in fine arts, psychology, and engineering
Pérez-Fabello, M. J., Campos, A., & Felisberti, F. (2018) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2017.12.005 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Something striking was revealed in some of those papers: from a behavioural perspective, women had a lower level of spatial confidence than men regardless of their level of accuracy (Picucci et al., 2011).”
An assessment method for landmark recognition time in real scenes
Zhang, X., Li, Q.-Q., Fang, Z.-X., Lu, S., & Shaw, S. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.06.008 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Static internal representation of dynamic situations reveals time compaction in human cognition
Villacorta-Atienza, J. A., Calvo, C., Diez‐Hermano, S., Sánchez‐Jiménez, A., Lobov, S. A., Krilova, N. P., Murciano, A., López-Tolsa, G. E., Pellón, R., & Makarov, V. A. (2020) · Journal of Advanced Research · doi:10.1016/j.jare.2020.08.008 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The lesser salience of time compaction in women reported in our experiments and the absence of differences between the groups of women and the Control group of men point to that women may rely on time compaction in conjunction with a broad range of decision-making strategies, as has been reported by other authors [52,…”
BackgroundResultKoulouri, T., Lauria, S., & Macredie, R. (2017) · Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2016.09.003 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Finally, the performance of females has been found to deteriorate when males are present (Picucci et al., 2011; Inzlicht and Ben-Zeev, 2000).”
Lopez, A., Caffò, A., & Bosco, A. (2020) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/1073191119831780 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationBuckley, M. G., & Bast, T. (2018) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.22992 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Lopez, A., Germani, A., Tinella, L., Caffò, A., Postma, A., & Bosco, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18020709 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationMéndez-López, M., Fidalgo, C., Osma, J., & Juan, M. (2020) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s236735 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In fact, women’s lower levels of confidence in their ability to solve spatial tasks such as drawing a floor plan, carrying out a wayfinding task or performing a distance estimation task have been reported.(22,71,73,74) Our results show that the factor representing the outdoor wayfinding experience, which includes the…”
BackgroundMunoz-Montoya, F., Juan, M., Méndez-López, M., Molla, R., Abad, F., & Fidalgo, C. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245976 · Cited by 14
“The users explored a VR environment during the task [18, 19, 25].”
BackgroundTestosterone and Spatial Memory: Rodent Models and Clinical Applications
Spritzer, M. D., Jaeger, E. C. B., & Guo, J. D. (2021) · Androgens: Clinical Research and Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/andro.2021.0018 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“68 Similar sex differences in spatial strategy use have been demonstrated with rodent experiments.”
Egocentric and allocentric spatial memory in young children: A comparison with young adults
Fernández-Baizán, C., Arias, J., & Méndez, M. (2021) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2216 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Exploring staircases as architectural cues in virtual vertical navigation
Memikoğlu, İ., & Demirkan, H. (2020) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102397 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Is Salience Robust? A Heterogeneity Analysis of Survey Ratings
Kattenbeck, M., Nuhn, E., & Timpf, S. (2018) · International Conference Geographic Information Science · doi:10.4230/lipics.giscience.2018.7 · Cited by 11
“These results are generally in line with those by Picucci et al. [31], who report on gender differences based on spatial confidence and orientation strategies These findings with respect to sense of direction and gender stress the importance of personal factors in salience ratings.”
Llana, T., Mendez, M., Juan, M., & Mendez-Lopez, M. (2024) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115388 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Effects of estrogen on spatial navigation and memory
Joue, G., Schröder, T. N., Achtzehn, J., Moffat, S. D., Hennies, N., Fuß, J., Doeller, C. F., Wolbers, T., & Sommer, T. (2024) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-024-06539-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…interpretation of greater sinuosity as better spatial orientation and could indicate greater confi-dence and/or less stress — both of which tend to be more often the case for males than females in test settings (Devlin and Bernstein 1995; Picucci et al. 2011 but also see van Ger-ven et al. 2016).”
BackgroundGender Differences in Perceptions of Technology, Technology Readiness, and Spatial Cognition
Blasko, D., Lum, H. C., & Campbell, J. (2020) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181320641333 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Picucci, Caffo, and Bosco (2011) found that, from a behavioral point of view, women had lower level of spatial confidence than men regardless of level of accuracy.”
BackgroundOn the proposed role of metacognition in environment learning: recommendations for research
Mason, L. A., Thomas, A., & Taylor, H. (2022) · Cognitive Research · doi:10.1186/s41235-022-00454-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Spatial research finds that subjective confidence in wayfinding ability can impact subsequent strategy use (Picucci et al., 2011).”
BackgroundA virtual reality photography application to assess spatial memory
Juan, M., Estevan, M., Méndez-López, M., Fidalgo, C., Lluch, J., & Vivó, R. (2023) · Behavior and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2022.2039770 · Cited by 8
“The fi rst VR applications for the assessment of spatial memory used a monitor to visualise the tasks, and the interaction was basic, without involving users ’ physical movements (Cimadevilla et al. 2014; Picucci, Ca ff ò, and Bosco 2011; Walkowiak, Foulsham, and Eardley 2015).”
MethodTravel planning in men and women. Who is better?
Bocchi, A., Palmiero, M., & Piccardi, L. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01451-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
State Anxiety Influences Sex Differences in Spatial Learning
Ruginski, I. T., Stefanucci, J. K., & Creem-Regehr, S. H. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96385-3_17 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
SPACE: A novel digital tool for assessing hippocampal structural integrity in older adults
Minta, K., Colombo, G., Tee, M., Low, M., Grübel, J., Wiener, J. M., Chen, C. P., Hilal, S., & Schinazi, V. R. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-39628-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“These differences also extend to navigation strategy use 105,106 , confidence 107 , spatial anxiety 108 , and sensitivity to task constraints such as time pressure 109,110 .”
Ponce, D., Mendez-Lopez, M., Lluch, J., & Juan, M. (2024) · Italian National Conference on Sensors · doi:10.3390/s24247938 · Cited by 5
Individual differences in emerging adults’ spatial abilities: What role do affective factors play?
Desme, C. J., Dick, A., Hayes, T. B., & Pruden, S. M. (2024) · Cognitive Research · doi:10.1186/s41235-024-00538-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“For example, Picucci et al. (2011) found no correlation between accuracy on a computer-adapted spatial reorientation task and participant confidence.”
BackgroundMuffato, V., Miola, L., Pazzaglia, F., & Meneghetti, C. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06628-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In particular, women self-report less spatial ability than men, lower confidence in completing spatial and wayfinding tasks (Picucci et al., 2011; Nori & Piccardi, 2015), and greater spatial anxiety and more negative attitudes toward exploring places (Muffato et al., 2023).”
Morag, I., & Parush, A. (2023) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2023.104160 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Juan, M., Méndez-López, M., Fidalgo, C., Molla, R., Vivó, R., & Paramo, D. (2022) · Journal on Multimodal User Interfaces · doi:10.1007/s12193-022-00392-4 · Cited by 4
“Users were sitting in front of these screens, without moving, and exploring a virtual environment [16, 17, 23].”
BackgroundDo men and women navigate differently in virtual environments? A comparative study
Tang, P., Liao, Y., Zheng, K., Sheng, Y.-F., Ren, W.-J., Liu, C., & Li, Y. (2025) · Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2025.103621 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Seeing it both ways: examining the role of inhibitory control in level-2 visual perspective-taking
Yuan, M., Jiang, R.-H., Li, X.-D., & Wu, W. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03519-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…age differences (Tinella et al., 2020 ; Zancada-Menendez et al., 2016) in individual spatial ability and different strategy applications lead to gender differences (Bosco et al., 2004; Piccardi et al., 2011; Picucci et al., 2011; Tarampi et al., 2016) in individual performance on spatial tasks.”
BackgroundUsing visual scene memory accuracy as a predictor of spatial navigation performance
Lovegrove, R. A., & Baumann, O. (2021) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3876 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Chatting While Walking Does Not Interfere with Topographical Working Memory
Piccardi, L., Bocchi, A., Palmiero, M., Boccia, M., D'Amico, S., & Nori, R. (2020) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci10110811 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ponce, D., Torres, C., Mendez-Lopez, M., Molla, R., & Juan, M. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3382251 · Cited by 3
“Other methods used to assess human spatial memory involve tests on paper [18], [19] or on a screen while the subject remains seated and without physical displacement [20], [21], [22].”
BackgroundMethodYang, Y., Peng, M., Yi, L., Duo, J., Pei, Y., & Fan, Z. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2026.103009 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Nolé, M., Soler, D., Higuera-Trujillo, J. L., & Llinares, C. (2022) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math10071184 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wang, J., Wang, Y.-C., Shen, C.-W., & Lin, P. (2020) · Transportation Planning and Technology · doi:10.1080/03081060.2020.1780706 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sezer, B., & Olguntürk, N. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2026.103107 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gender stereotypes and the construction of self-beliefs in spatial cognition
Arrighi, L., & Hausmann, M. (2026) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-026-02303-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…construct, with men generally holding more positive self-evaluations of their spatial abilities than women (e.g., Lyons et al., 2018 ; Matthews et al., 2024 ), even in contexts where objective performance differences were absent (Ariel et al., 2018; Picucci et al., 2011 ; Reilly et al., 2022 ).”
Walkowiak, S., Coutrot, A., Wiener, J. M., Hornberger, M., Manley, E., & Spiers, H. J. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.18.558324 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review
Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5
Sex Differences in Exploration Behavior and the Relationship to Harm Avoidance
Gagnon, K. T., Cashdan, E., Stefanucci, J. K., & Creem-Regehr, S. (2015) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-015-9248-1
“Female psychology reflects these fitness costs: women report greater wayfinding anxiety than men (Devlin and Bernstein 1995; Lawton 1994; Lawton and Kallai 2002; Picucci et al. 2011; Schmitz 1997) and are more harm-avoidant and risk-averse generally (Campbell 1999).”
BackgroundCheng, L., Chen, T.-S., Liang, W.-S., Sun, C.-G., Qian, J., Tang, W., & Chen, M. (2026) · Cartography and Geographic Information Science · doi:10.1080/15230406.2026.2701863
Navigational metacognition in aging: Encoding strategies and spatial representation.
Lloyd, M., & Moffat, S. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109492
Valencia, L., & Renan, M. (2019) · doi:10.4995/thesis/10251/107955
“…Reality (AR) allow to obtain objective indicators of the person’s spatial memory through a presentation of stimuli (varied and diverse) and the record of responses (reaction times, successes-failures, distance traveled, speed, etc.) (e.g., Picucci, Caffò, and Bosco 2011; Juan et al. 2014).”
BackgroundSpatial Cognitive Style and Its Relationship with Spatial Abilities
Zuo, T.-T., & Hu, Q.-F. (2015) · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2015.00959
Sex Difference in Confidence on Conformity patterns in Female-dominate Stereotyped Task
Gu, Z., Liu, Y., & Yang, Y. (2022) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research · doi:10.2991/assehr.k.220105.063
“In addition, Picucci’s research article published in 2011 found out that women also under-rate their scores when they participate in some psychological experiments like simple navigation tasks on a computer screen [3].”
BackgroundNew, J. J., & Truxaw, D. (2021) · Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_954
- Authors
- Picucci, L., Caffò, A. O., & Bosco, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Bari Aldo Moro (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Picucci, Luciana
- Venue
- Journal of Environmental Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 430-438
- ISSN
- 0272-4944 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1995870279
- Cited by
- 72
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 4.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Environmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (University of Bari Aldo Moro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geography Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Geography and Education Methods
- Keywords
- gender differences, spatial navigation, navigation strategies, virtual worlds, landmarks, spatial cues, spatial orientation
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