Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of malaria in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan
Abstract
Ethnopharmacological relevance To best of our knowledge this is the first quantitative ethno-medicinal study with the aim of documenting the indigenous knowledge and practices of using plants for malarial therapy in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan. In this Valley, malaria is among the major public health problems but, until now, the population still mostly relies on herbal medicine for treatment.Materials and methods Ethno-medicinal data were documented from 63 informants by using semi-structured questionnaires and interviewing the informants about their knowledge of plants regarding malaria and related symptoms. Documented data were evaluated using the quantitative ethno-botanical indices of frequency citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC), percentage of respondents having knowledge (PRK) and Jaccard index (JI).Results A total of 70 plant species belonging to 62 genera and 34 families were recorded as anti-malarial in the study area. Solanaceae was found to be the most cited family with 7 species, followed by Fabaceae, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae with 5 species each. Ocimum americanum and Solanum incanum were the species with the highest relative frequency of citation (RFC =0.25 each) and percentage of respondents having knowledge (PRK =25.4% each), followed by Grewia tenax (RFC =0.23, PRK =23.8%), which indicates that these plants are the best species with anti-malarial properties. The most highly cited life form was found to be herbs (56%). The dominant plant part used in preparations were leaves (49%). The main mode of utilization was decoction (47%) followed by infusion (29%). In comparison, maximum similarity index is found in our study with JI (16.83) followed by (13.13). Similarity percentage of plants uses ranges from 0.81 to 16.83 while dissimilarity percentage varies from 0% to 17.65%.Conclusions To the best of our knowledge seven plant species, viz. Withania coagulans, Fagonia cretica, Carthamus oxyacantha, Ehretia obtusifolia, Helianthus annuus, Olea ferruginea and Vitex trifolia, are reported from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria. This first ethno-medicinal study highlights potential sources for the development of new antimalarial drugs from indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants found in the Soon Valley, Pakistan. Such investigations could be a subject for in vitro and in vivo anti-plasmodial screening to develop new plant-based antimalarial drugs and can also be evaluated for other biological activities and novel drug discoveries.
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“| Methanolic chloroform root | Prevent β-amyloid induced | SK-N-MC cells | Decrease in accumulation of Aβ and transport them | [181,311] |”
From Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects (2021) · cites this paper as [311]
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“| Methanolic chloroform root | Prevent β-amyloid induced | SK-N-MC cells | Decrease in accumulation of Aβ and transport them | [181,311] |”
From Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects (2021) · cites this paper as [311]
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“| Methanolic chloroform root | Prevent β-amyloid induced | SK-N-MC cells | Decrease in accumulation of Aβ and transport them | [181,311] |”
From Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects (2021) · cites this paper as [311]
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“| Semi purified root extract | Enhanced activity neuronal receptors | APP/PS1 Alzheimer's | Trigger expression of Neuronal receptors such as | [286,311] |”
From Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects (2021) · cites this paper as [311]
Semi purified root extract triggers expression of D2 receptors in APP/PS1 Alzheimer's transgenic mice and PD mice.
“| Semi purified root extract | Enhanced activity neuronal receptors | APP/PS1 Alzheimer's | Trigger expression of Neuronal receptors such as | [286,311] |”
From Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects (2021) · cites this paper as [311]
Semi purified root extract triggers expression of LRP in APP/PS1 Alzheimer's transgenic mice and PD mice.
“| Semi purified root extract | Enhanced activity neuronal receptors | APP/PS1 Alzheimer's | Trigger expression of Neuronal receptors such as | [286,311] |”
From Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects (2021) · cites this paper as [311]
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Majeed, M., Bhatti, K. H., Amjad, M. S., Abbasi, A. M., Bussmann, R. W., Nawaz, F., Rashid, A., Mehmood, A., Mahmood, M., Khan, W. M., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241705 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Wali, A., Jan, H. A., & Bussmann, R. W. (2019) · Ethnobotany Research and Applications · doi:10.32859/era.18.32.1-18 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…and seeds were commonly used as reported by Rokaya et al. (2010) and Tareen et al. (2016) for the cure of DDs. Leaves are well-known for the synthesis of numerous active ingredients and pharmacologically more active than some other part (Rokaya et al. 2014; Ahmad et al. 2016; Shah and Rahim 2017).”
BackgroundMethodKasali, F. M., Tusiimire, J., Kadima, J. N., & Agaba, A. G. (2021) · Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1186/s43094-021-00306-3 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Zengin, G., Ferrante, C., Gnapi, D. E., Sinan, K. I., Orlando, G., Recinella, L., Diuzheva, A., Jekő, J., Cziáky, Z., Chiavaroli, A., et al. (2019) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108610 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Nutritional, phytochemical and diverse health-promoting qualities of Cleome gynandra
Moyo, M., & Aremu, A. O. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1867055 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“The specific countries in each region are Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe (Southern Africa); Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania (East Africa); Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria (West Africa); India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Thailand (South Asia).”
BackgroundAn ethnobotanical study of wetland flora of Head Maralla Punjab Pakistan
Iqbal, M. S., Ahmad, K. S., Ali, M. A., Akbar, M., Mehmood, A., Nawaz, F., Hussain, S. A., Arshad, N., Munir, S., Arshad, H., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258167 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
RetractedA Review of the Economic Botany of Sesbania (Leguminosae)
Bunma, S., & Balslev, H. (2019) · The Botanical Review · doi:10.1007/s12229-019-09205-y · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Sesbania concolor is a weed in west Pakistan and west Punjab of India (Gillett, 1963).”
BackgroundInfluentialFarag, M., Abdel-Mageed, W. M., El‐Gamal, A. A., & Basudan, O. A. (2021) · Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.jsps.2021.05.007 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Important insights from the antimicrobial activity of Calotropis procera
Amini, M. H., Ashraf, K., Salim, F., Lim, S. M., Ramasamy, K., Manshoor, N., Sultan, S., & Ahmad, W. (2021) · Arabian Journal of Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103181 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
SHAH, A. (2018) · Applied Ecology and Environmental Research · doi:10.15666/aeer/1601_111143 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Herbs dominated the major plant forms in the recipes and are the most abundance in the area (Shah and Rahim, 2017).”
BackgroundA SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF TRADITIONAL USES BIOACTIVE PHYTOCONSTITUENTS OF GENUS EHRETIA
Shukla, A., & Kaur, A. (2018) · Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research · doi:10.22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i6.25178 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Mottaghipisheh, J., Kamali, M., Doustimotlagh, A. H., Nowroozzadeh, M. H., Rasekh, F., Hashempur, M. H., & Iraji, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1322083 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Jan, H. A., Abidin, S. Z. U., Bhatti, M. Z., Ahmad, L., Alghamdi, A. K., & Alkreathy, H. M. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su142013077 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kandsi, F., Lafdil, F. Z., Hachlafi, N. E., Jeddi, M., Bouslamti, M., fadili, M. E., Seddoqi, S., & Gseyra, N. (2023) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-023-02658-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Charneau, S. O., Cordeiro, T. D. M., Borghetti, F., Oliveira, S. C. C., Bastos, I. M. D., Santana, J. M., & Grellier, P. (2017) · Pharmacognosy Magazine · doi:10.4103/pm.pm_100_17 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“[7‐10] Medicinal plants may absolutely contain yet undiscovered antimalarial properties, which can serve as a template for production of new contemptible antimalarial drugs.[11,12] Qualea grandiflora (Vochysiaceae) is an endemic tree of the Brazilian Cerrado, which presents medicinal properties.”
BackgroundBezerra, J. J. L., Pinheiro, A. A. V., & Dourado, D. (2023) · The Journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases · doi:10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2022-0079 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Leaves Infusion 1 glass decoction of leaves thrice a day Pakistan [32]”
BackgroundPooja, P., & Kumar, A. (2023) · Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry · doi:10.52711/0975-4385.2023.00028 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Zareen, S., Khan, S. N., Adnan, M., Haleem, S., Rehman, A., & Alnomasy, S. F. (2021) · Open Chemistry · doi:10.1515/chem-2021-0091 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Studies in Pakistan have revealed that eucalyptus leaves collected from the Soon Valley in Khushab, Pakistan, have been traditionally used against malaria infection [ 11 ] .”
BackgroundETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS OF NAMAL VALLEY, SALT RANGE, PAKISTAN
Shah, A. J. (2019) · Applied Ecology and Environmental Research · doi:10.15666/aeer/1702_47254805 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The major use of flower is unique to this study when, compared with other ethnomedicinal studies (Rahman et al., 2016; Shah and Rahim, 2017) conducted in Pakistan.”
BackgroundResultQuest for malaria management using natural remedies
Ain, Q., Saleem, N., Munawar, N., Nawaz, R., Naseer, F., & Ahmed, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1359890 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in Surghar Range of Pakistan
Rahim, S., Shah, A., & Iqbal, S. (2023) · Ethnobotany Research and Applications · doi:10.32859/era.26.6.1-72 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Oral hygiene in Namibia: A case of chewing sticks
Nyambe, M. M., Kwembeya, E. G., Lisao, K., & Hans, R. H. (2021) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2021.114203 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Maqsood, T., Munawar, T., Bibi, Y., Askary, A. E., Gharib, A. F., Elmissbah, T. E., Elesawy, B. H., & Qayyum, A. (2022) · Open Chemistry · doi:10.1515/chem-2022-0129 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“These metabolites are very useful against various disorders [29,30].”
BackgroundJamalludin, N. B., & Manshoor, N. (2022) · Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology · doi:10.34172/jhp.2022.37 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“The plant roots contain withanolide glycoside, withanoside I [16], withanoside II [17], withanoside III [18], withanoside IV [19], withanoside V [20], withanoside VI [21], and withanoside VII [22].”
BackgroundPhichonsatcha, T., Pentrakoon, D., Gerdsri, N., & Kanjana‐Opas, A. (2021) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2021.105884 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Tayyab, M. B., Majeed, M. Z., Riaz, M. A., Aqueel, M. A., Ouédraogo, S. N., Luqman, M., Ahmed, K. S., & Tanvir, M. (2021) · Sarhad Journal of Agriculture · doi:10.17582/journal.sja/2022/38.1.26.39 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Choubey, V. K., Gupta, T., Gogoi, R., Tamang, R., Sarma, N., Begum, T., Lal, M., Dutta, D., Perveen, K., Khan, F., et al. (2023) · Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants · doi:10.1080/0972060x.2023.2278751 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Profile of Salvadora persica Linn
Alam, T., Khan, S. A., & Dhanalekshmi, U. M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4959-2_3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Safdar, M. E., Wang, X., Abbas, M., Özaslan, C., Asif, M., Adnan, M., Zuan, A. T. K., Wang, W., Gašparovič, K., Nasif, O., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258920 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
RetractedYuan, L., Yang, K., & Jiang, D. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Zoology · doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/20200611050629 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Antimalarial and mosquito repellent plants: insights from Burundi
Havyarimana, C., Nkengurutse, J., Ngezahayo, J., Cuní‐Sanchez, A., & Masharabu, T. (2023) · Ethnobotany Research and Applications · doi:10.32859/era.25.31.1-28 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Elahi, R., Rauf, A., Qayash, M., Parveen, G., Yaqub, S., Jabbar, K., Khan, G., Khan, I., & Li, J. (2025) · Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution · doi:10.1007/s10722-025-02380-5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“& Kitam previously reported in several investigations such as Shah et al. (2017) in the Basikhel tribe Torghar District Buner as a laxative and to cure malaria while we have also documented its function as an antidiuretic, fever, and skin aches.”
Spider Plant (Cleome gynandra)
Kayitesi, E., & Moyo, S. M. (2022) · CABI eBooks · doi:10.1079/9781789248067.0003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A new species of Parasola section Conopileae (Psathyrellaceae) from Pakistan
Khan, Z., ARSHAD, M. A., Niazi, A. R., & Khalid, A. N. (2023) · TURKISH JOURNAL OF BOTANY · doi:10.55730/1300-008x.2788 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Seroprevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Punjab, Pakistan
Raza, N., Durrani, A. Z., Saleem, M. H., Sheikh, A. A., Usman, M., Mujahid, Q., Iqbal, M. Z., & Rizwan, M. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Zoology · doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/20210711070745 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Characterization of lignocellulosic S. persica fibre and its composites: a review
Diyana, A. F. N., Abdan, K., Sali, M. S., Lee, C. H., Aisyah, H. A., Norizan, M. N., & Rafiqah, S. A. (2022) · Physical Sciences Reviews · doi:10.1515/psr-2022-0043 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Efficacy of medicinal plants and their derived biomolecules against Plasmodium falciparum
Qulsum, U., Azad, M. T. A., & Kato, K. (2024) · Parasitology International · doi:10.1016/j.parint.2024.102946 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wang, Z., Wu, Q., Ye, R., Nabi, F., Shang, Y., Ali, S., & Liu, J. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Zoology · doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/20200316150354 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Majeed, M. Z. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Zoology · doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/20210411140405 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“viscosa are known for their ethnomedicinal value and for their herbal remedial potential (Simonsen et al., 2001; Hashmi et al., 2015; Shah and Rahim, 2017).”
BackgroundExploring the benefits of applying indigenous knowledge (IK) into foresight process
Phichonsatcha, T., Gerdsri, N., Pentrakoon, D., & Kanjana‐Opas, A. (2023) · foresight · doi:10.1108/fs-10-2022-0134 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Heera, H., Akhtar, N., Khalid, S., Jan, H. A., Gul, S., & Ali, A. A. (2023) · Ethnobotany Research and Applications · doi:10.32859/era.25.45.1-19 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Jan, H. A., Hazzazi, Y., Al‐Hawshabi, O. S. S., & El-Shabasy, A. E. (2025) · Annals of Applied Biology · doi:10.1111/aab.70051 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aung, H. M., Huangteerakul, C., Panvongsa, W., Jensen, A. N., Chairoungdua, A., Sukrong, S., & Jensen, L. T. (2018) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2018.05.016 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Introducing Indigenous Knowledge into Foresight
Phichonsatcha, T., Gerdsri, N., Pentrakoon, D., & Kanjana‐Opas, A. (2019) · Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET) · doi:10.23919/picmet.2019.8893680 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effect of Nostalgist BL on Biology of Acanthoscelides obtectus’ (Say) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)
SÖNMEZ, E. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Zoology · doi:10.17582/journal.pjz/20210508110518 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF INDIGENOUS VEGETATION OF NAMAL VALLEY, MIANWALI - PUNJAB, PAKISTAN
RIZWAN, M., Ahmad, K., KHAN, Z., AHMAD, I., & Akhtar, S. (2023) · SABRAO Journal of Breeding and Genetics · doi:10.54910/sabrao2023.55.2.15 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“near Namal valley in the District of Mianwali, Pakistan, with this valley still unexplored (Ghani et al., 2014; Shah and Rahim, 2017).”
BackgroundStudy of the sensitivity of Enterococcus faecalis to the methanolic extracts of Solanum incanum L
Jacques, M. M. J., Lydia, M. K., & NGULU-NSASI, A. (2017) · The Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.31254/jmr.2017.3511
“This plant was harvested during an ethnobotanical survey carried out by traditherapeutes in the city of Lubumbashi [8].”
BackgroundInfluentialJan, H., Haq, S. M., Wali, S., Rahim, F., Ali, S., & Khalid, S. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2167126/v1
Ethnoveterinary Study of Medicinal Plants of District Okara, Pakistan
Aslam, S., Mansoor, M., Bano, S., Zeeshan, A., Ilyas, A., Eman, A., & Javed, F. (2024) · Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Research · doi:10.61919/jhrr.v4i2.958
“The dominance of herbs can be attributed to their climatic adaptability and high regeneration potential compared to shrubs and trees (Shah & Rahim, 2017).”
BackgroundArya, P., Karakoti, M., Joshi, P. K., & Tewari, R. (2025) · Asian Journal of Chemistry · doi:10.14233/ajchem.2025.33564
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“Kanhatti Garden, located in Khushab District, experiences hot summers and severe winters, with an overall temperature range of –1 to 50 °C and an average annual rainfall of 103 mm (Shah and Rahim 2017).”
Knowledge, attitudes and practices on malaria and mosquitoes in the Far-North region of Cameroon
Danga, S. P. Y., Yonki, B., Ngadvou, D., Ezeike, A. K., Djonga, A., Nukenine, E. N., & Esimone, C. O. (2026) · Malaria Journal · doi:10.1186/s12936-026-06052-2
Khalid, S., Muhammad, S., & Ahmad, A. (2025) · Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution · doi:10.1007/s10722-025-02649-9
“Compared to trees and shrubs, herbs have a higher capability for regeneration and are more climatically tolerant, which accounts for their dominance (Shah and Rahim 2017).”
Cross-cultural assessment of ethnomedicinal plant use and conservation priorities
Filimban, F. Z., Jan, H. A., Bussmann, R. W., & Ahmad, M. (2026) · Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution · doi:10.1007/s10722-025-02714-3
“In addition, herbs grow more quickly than trees and bushes (Jan et al. 2022; Shah and Rahim 2017).”
Irshad, M., Asghar, A., Raza, A., Tufail, U., Kanwal, R., Hameed, M., Sheikh, A., Ali, B., & Tufail, M. R. (2026) · Plant Science Horizons · doi:10.66835/psh.2026.e0010
- Authors
- Shah, A., & Rahim, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Sargodha (PK)
- Corresponding author
- Shah, Amin
- ORCID
- Rahim, Sarvat
- Venue
- Journal of Ethnopharmacology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-03
- Volume
- 200
- Pages
- 84-106
- ISSN
- 0378-8741 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2586850421
- Cited by
- 61
- References
- 211
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 4
- FWCI
- 4.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Ethnopharmacology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Higher Education of Commission Pakistan (20-1599/09/3007)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Ethnobotanical and Medicinal Plants Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Medicinal Plant Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Phytochemistry Medicinal Plant Applications
- Keywords
- malaria, ethnomedicine, medicinal plants, indigenous knowledge, herbal medicine, decoction, Ocimum americanum, Solanum incanum, Grewia tenax, new plant records, Solanaceae, Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Jaccard similarity
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Antimalarials, Female, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Malaria, Male, Phytotherapy, Medicine, Traditional, Middle Aged, Pakistan, Plant Extracts, Plants, Medicinal, Surveys and Questionnaires
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