Cited by 599Chaos, Complexity, and EducationLeadership and Management in OrganizationsComplex Systems and Decision Making

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Organizations as complex adaptive systems: Implications of Complexity Theory for leadership research

Schneider, Marguerite, Somers, Mark·2006·The Leadership Quarterly

DOI 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.006

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“These include General Systems Theory (Backlund, 2000, Boulding, 1956), complexity (Schneider and Somers, 2006), organizational ecology (Chengalur-Smith and Sidorova, 2003, Hannan and Freeman, 1977), and resource dependence (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978).”
Background
Using complex adaptive systems (CAS) framework to assess success factors that lead to successful organizational change: a new way to understand change implementation for success
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“A system can be deemed complex if it consists of multiple interconnected elements exhibiting dynamic behaviors (Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
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Weberg, D. (2013) · Cited by 10
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Forno, A. D., & Merlone, U. (2007) · Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca - Università degli Studi del Molise · Cited by 10
Frontline Learning Research
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Leadership across schools to diffuse an education innovation: applying complexity leadership theory with ecological leadership
Ho, J. M. P. Y., Ng, D. F. S., Chua, P. H., & Munir, N. B. (2021) · International Journal of Leadership in Education · doi:10.1080/13603124.2021.2010283 · Cited by 16
“A search for the use of complexity theory in empirical studies in an education setting, as opposed to conceptual or review papers (Mason, 2016; Price, 2014; Schneider & Somers, 2006; Tourish, 2019), yielded very few studies (Kershner & McQuillan, 2016; Toh, 2016).”
Addressing complexity and planning for the uncertain: local finances in wartime Ukraine
Vakulenko, V., Sargiacomo, M., & Klymenko, V. (2024) · Public Money & Management · doi:10.1080/09540962.2024.2374333 · Cited by 9
“Deriving from natural sciences and biology (Schneider & Somers, 2006), the universal assumptions of this theory have influenced other sciences like organization theory and management (Stacey, 1995; Maguire & McKelvey, 1999), economics (Arthur, 1999), neuroscience (Sporns, 2016), and ecology (Levin,…”
Turning complexity into a Delight to the Mind : An integrative framework for teaching and learning complex reasoning
Montefusco, A., & Angeli, F. (2024) · Management Learning · doi:10.1177/13505076241258932 · Cited by 16
“While some contributions have highlighted the value of complexity and systems-oriented thinking in managerial studies (Schneider and Somers, 2006; Sterman, 2000), how to introduce complexity in managerial curricula is still understudied in management and learning education literature.”
Integrated management systems as complex adaptive systems
Domingues, P., Sampaio, P. A. D. C. A., & Arezes, P. (2015) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · Cited by 9
A complexity perspective on health care improvement and reform in general practice and primary health care
Booth, B. J., Zwar, N. A., & Harris, M. (2010) · Australian Journal of Primary Health · doi:10.1071/py10003 · Cited by 9
Complex Adaptive Leadership for Organization and Human DevelopmentPreprint
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“Complexity theory posits “that some events, given our knowledge and technology, are unknowable until they occur, and may indeed be unknowable in advance” (Schneider & Somers, 2006: 354).”
The prisoner’s dilemma in the workplace: how cooperative behavior of managers influence organizational performance and stress
Daňa, J., Kopeček, I., Ošlejšek, R., Plhák, J., & Caputo, F. (2021) · Kybernetes · doi:10.1108/k-04-2020-0229 · Cited by 8
Multidimensional Model of Assessment of Economic Thinking in College Students
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Attributes attitudes and chaordic travel intentions during COVID-19
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“Complex systems are characterized as chaordic because the behaviour resulting from the complex and dynamic interactions of elements creates new structures (Schneider & Somers, 2006) that are based on unpredictability and pattern (Olmedo, 2011).”
Background
Leadership as an enabling function: Towards a new paradigm for local church leadership in the 21st century
Elkington, R., Meekins, D., Breen, J. M., & Martin, S. S. (2015) · In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi · doi:10.4102/ids.v49i3.1911 · Cited by 8
“…the invisible leader is very similar to the construct of the strange attractor of meaning (Burns 2002; Marion & Uhl-Bien 2001; Regine & Lewin 2000; Schneider & Somers 2006; Uhl-Bien Marion & McKelvey 2007; Wheatley 1998) in that it draws people to the group and at the same time generates power…”
Background
A Systemic Approach to Sustainable Humanitarian Logistics
Remida, A. (2015) · Lecture notes in logistics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-15455-8_2 · Cited by 8
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“…organisation itself is viewed as the unit of analysis and understood as a complex adaptive system, a view which aligns with the literature on organisational complexity (Boal and Schultz 2007; Mitleton-Kelly 2003; Schneider and Somers 2006; Stacey 1995, 1996; Uhl-Bien et al. 2007; Weick 1995, 2001).”
Background
POLYMATHIC LEADERSHIP: THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND CONSTRUCT DEVELOPMENT
ARAKI, M. E. (2015) · doi:10.17771/pucrio.acad.26112 · Cited by 10
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“Interaction at the local level therefore continues to evolve as local agents seek to survive in the broader system, and local rules also continue to emerge and evolve (Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
Background
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“Thus, after turbulence, groups will naturally seek to return to functioning effectively as a team, as working well together is desirable and serves as the strange attractor, however, the path or trajectory back towards this stable state is random and unpredictable (Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“They view organizations not as closed rational systems, but as complex and open systems [62].”
Background
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“In addition, integrating the propositions presented above with systems theory (e.g., Schneider & Somers, 2006) might advance the proposed framework to address multiple bullies and multiple targets.”
Method
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“0erefore, it is time to solve the problem of developing and testing a full-factor leadership model based on the complex theory proposed by Schneider and Somers [31] and other scholars.”
Background
Understanding water governance from a systems’ perspective: A precursor for an enhanced water governance in small towns
Fielmua, N. (2021) · Habitat International · doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2021.102418 · Cited by 6
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“Researchers have begun to apply complexity and chaos theories to organisations (Boal and Schultz, 2007; Fuller and Moran, 2001; Marion and Uhl-Bien, 2007; Schneider and Somers, 2006).”
Background
Workplace and Organizational Well&;#x02010;Being
Oades, L. G., & Dulagil, A. (2016) · doi:10.1002/9781118977620.ch15 · Cited by 8
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“They propose that systems thinking will be fruitful for future organizational research in workplace and organizational well‐being (Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
Background
How interconnected SMEs in business cluster survive the economic crisis
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"Shots fired! We have many people down!": Common recommendations for managing high-casualty active shooter events in the USA
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“Research into complex adaptive systems, as a subset of complexity science and a distinctly-defined class of complex systems, has deep historical roots but came of age with the formation of the Sante Fe Institute in the 1980s (Schneider and Somers 2006; Waldrop 1992).”
Background
Complexity and leadership crisis in Africa
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High-Performance Organization untuk Menghadapi Turbulensi Lingkungan Bisnis
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“Schneider dan Somers (2006) menyatakan bahwa banyak masalah organi-sasi yang telah ada dari masa sebelumnya, terutama bagaimana mencegah manajerialisme, yaitu manipulasi korporasi oleh isu-isu manajemen yang banyak mengalami perubahan.”
Indigenous Leadership Practices in Africa
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Creative Emergence, Order, and Chaos
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Decision-Making Under Complexity: The Case of District SME.Preprint
Saviano, M., & Berardi, M. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 6
References
(2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-78560-651-920152019 · Cited by 6
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Kasemsap, K. (2016) · Advances in religious and cultural studies (ARCS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0148-0.ch018 · Cited by 5
Project performance prediction model linking agility and flexibility demands to project type
de Oliveira, M. A., Valentina, L. V. O. D., Futami, A. H., Possamai, O., & Flesch, C. A. (2021) · Expert Systems · doi:10.1111/exsy.12675 · Cited by 5
“According to Schneider and Somers (2006), Somers et al. (2018), Harrison et al. (2007), Karanika-Murray and Cox (2010), DeTienne et al. (2003) and DeTienne and DeTienne (2015) the main reason for this situation is the lack of awareness of management scholars on more sophisticated alternative…”
Background
Self‐organizing maps and Bayesian networks in organizational modelling: A case study in innovation projects management
de Oliveira, M. A., Pacheco, A. L. S., Futami, A. H., Valentina, L. V. O. D., & Flesch, C. A. (2022) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/sres.2836 · Cited by 5
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“…social science and information systems, among others, to understand and explain the dynamic behaviour of complex systems (Kariippanon et al., 2020; Schneider & Somers, 2006), with some studies ﬁ nding that the most productive state for a system is at the ‘ edge of chaos ’ (Levin, 1998, p. 431).”
Background
Exploring Leadership Styles Adopted in Organizational Performance of ADNOC Company
Alshehhi, H. A., Ministry of Interior -Ras Al Khaimah Police General Headquarters, U. A. E., Jano, Z., & Kudus, N. B. (2023) · International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering Technology · doi:10.30880/ijscet.2023.14.02.007 · Cited by 5
Essentials of ‘the Great Reset’ through Complexity Matching
Roblek, V., & Dimovski, V. (2024) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems12060182 · Cited by 5
The homeostasis paradox of new business models
Batista, L. C., Ng, I. C. L., & Maull, R. (2013) · University of Warwick · doi:10.82444/warw.33695425 · Cited by 5
Thinking of data protection law's subject matter as a complex adaptive system: A heuristic display
Zhang, K., & Schmidt, A. (2015) · Computer law & security review · doi:10.1016/j.clsr.2015.01.007 · Cited by 5
Co-leadership—A Facilitator of Health- and Social Care Integration
Klinga, C. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-69262-9_15 · Cited by 5
Modern History of System of Systems, Enterprises, and Complex Systems
Gorod, A., Gandhi, S. J., White, B. E., Ireland, V., & Sauser, B. J. (2014) · Complex and enterprise systems engineering/Complex and enterprise systems engineering series · doi:10.1201/b17139-3 · Cited by 5
Understanding effects of innovative and collaborative approaches on supply chain performance
Demir, H., & Sezen, B. (2017) · Pressacademia · doi:10.17261/pressacademia.2017.457 · Cited by 5
“Schneider and Somers (2006) describe the cycle of entropy and negative entropy as the leading force of disorganization or death.”
Background
Developing Leadership for Increasing Complexity: A Review of Online Graduate Leadership Programs
Winton, S. L., Palmer, S., & Hughes, P. J. (2018) · Journal of Leadership Education · doi:10.12806/v17/i1/a4 · Cited by 5
“As hierarchies flatten, and boundaries blur, leadership will become increasingly dynamic - emerging throughout and across organizations (Lichtenstein, Uhl-Bien, Marion, Seers, Orton & Schreiber, 2006; Osborn, Hunt & Jauch, 2002; Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
Background
MONITORING AND EVALUATION IN A CHAOTIC AND COMPLEX GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS’ ENVIRONMENT
Uwizeyimana, D. E. (2020) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · Cited by 5
Technical innovation: trigger or threat for organizational learning? A curvilinear relationship revisited
Ortega‐Egea, T., Bravo, M. I. R., Moreno, A. R., Domínguez, C. H., & Pullés, D. C. (2020) · Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing · doi:10.1108/jbim-04-2019-0167 · Cited by 6
Chaos/Complexity Theory in Language Learning: An Ideological Look
Shakouri, N., Teimourtash, M., & Teimourtash, M. (2014) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.4.7.1503-1510 · Cited by 5
“Schneider and Somers (2006) maintain, ―dissipative structures may react disproportionately to an environmental change‖ (p. 356).”
Background
Permit-to-Work Systems as a Health and Safety Risk Control Strategy in Mining: A Prospective Study in Resilience Engineering
Pillay, M., & Tuck, M. (2017) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60645-3_14 · Cited by 5
The inter and intra Relationship between Economics, Administrative sciences and Social sciences disciplines
Benlagha, N., & Hemrit, W. (2018) · Research in Social Sciences and Technology · doi:10.46303/ressat.03.03.6 · Cited by 5
Complexity leadership in industrial innovation teams
DeLia, E. (2011) · ProQuest Demo Repository · doi:10.7282/t38c9vx7 · Cited by 5
“According to theory, CAS are fit to their environment only when their internal complexity equals the complexity on their environment (Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
Background
Leadership as Process: A theory of formal and informal organizing in complex adaptive systems
Hazy, J. K. (2012) · Academy of Management Proceedings · doi:10.5465/ambpp.2012.10793abstract · Cited by 5
“…limiting the domain of leadership to interpersonal influence, they described it as somehow enabling complexity phenomena such as “emergent structures” within and among organizations in a manner directly analogous to observed complexity phenomena in the natural sciences (Schneider & Somers, 2006).”
Background
Managing complexity by business networks: the case of multi-club ownership in professional football
Trequattrini, R., Lacchini, M., Bianchi, M. T., & Schimperna, M. (2025) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-12-2023-2438 · Cited by 4
The resilience of planned and self-organised circular economy networks: a novel simulation approach
Massari, G. F., Nacchiero, R., & Giannoccaro, I. (2025) · International Journal of Production Research · doi:10.1080/00207543.2025.2598444 · Cited by 4
“…and Carbone 2018; Giannoccaro et al. 2020; Massari, Gian-noccaro, and Carbone 2019; Turner, Baker, and Morris 2018; West et al. 2020), single firms (Schneider and Somers 2006), traditional supply chains (Choi, Dooley, and Rungtusanatham 2001; Giannoccaro 2015; Massari, Giannoccaro, and Carbone…”
Green accommodation choices in the sharing economy
Farmaki, A., Pappas, N. V., Stergiou, D. P., Apostolakis, A., & Camilleri, M. A. (2025) · Tourism Review · doi:10.1108/tr-05-2025-0497 · Cited by 4
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“Effect loops vary in size (linear and non-linear [45]), time scale (varying from instant to delayed [43]), and aggregation scale (from individual level to the whole system [46]).”
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“The tools of statistical physics turned out to be extremely useful when applied to complex systems (Chakraborti et al., 2011) – and organisations can be characterised as complex systems (Dooley & Van de Ven, 1999; Schneider & Somers, 2006; Scott & Davis, 2007).”
Method
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“The participants in the leadership institute and the facilitators adopted a constructivist and democratic model of planning, implementation, and evaluation (Caffarella, 2002; Lichtenstein & Plowman, 2009; Mathews, 2006; Rashman, Withers & Harley, 2009; Schneider & Somers, 2006; Yukl, 2008).”
Background
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“In the field of leadership, complexity theory, although very new, is increasingly being applied, as is shown by Schneider and Somers (2006), Simpson (2007) and Newth and Corner (2009).”
BackgroundMethod
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“61 In nature, you can see this exhibited structurally through fractals, for example, the shape of ferns, snow-ﬂ akes, or tree branches.”

Authors: Schneider, M., & Somers, M.
Affiliations: New Jersey Institute of Technology (US)
Corresponding author: Schneider, Marguerite
ORCID: Somers, Mark
Venue: The Leadership Quarterly
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2006-08
Volume: 17
Issue: 4
Pages: 351-365
ISSN: 1048-9843 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.006
OpenAlex: W2156313615
Cited by: 599
References: 123
Citations by year: 2026: 26 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 23
FWCI: 10.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: The Leadership Quarterly (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Chaos, Complexity, and Education
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Leadership and Management in Organizations
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Complex Systems and Decision Making
Keywords: complex adaptive systems, complexity theory, leadership, general systems theory, organizational identity, social movements, leadership process, dynamic system simulation, artificial neural networks, nonlinear models, organizational change

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Organizations as complex adaptive systems: Implications of Complexity Theory for leadership research

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