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An old method facing a new challenge: Re-visiting housekeeping proteins as internal reference control for neuroscience research

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Li, Rena, Shen, Yong·2013·Life Sciences

DOI 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.02.014PMC PMC3614345

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Abstract

Study of specific target protein expression is often performed by western blotting, a commonly used method to measure the protein expression in neuroscience research by specific antibodies. Housekeeping proteins are used as an internal control for protein loading as well as reference in the western blotting analysis. This practice is based on the belief that such housekeeping genes are considered to be ubiquitously and constitutively expressed in every tissue and produce the minimal essential transcripts necessary for normal cellular function. The most commonly used housekeeping proteins are β-actin, β-tubulin, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). However, recent studies have shown significant variation in some housekeeping genes both at the mRNA and protein levels in various neuropathological events, such as spinal cord injury and Alzheimer's diseases. Changes of housekeeping genes are also induced by non-neuronal diseases in various tissues. Therefore, these discoveries raise a potential concern regarding whether using a housekeeping protein as an internal standard for target protein analysis is an appropriate practice. This mini review will focus on (I) the effects of neuronal and non-neuronal diseases, experimental condition, and tissues-specific roles on alteration of housekeeping genes, and (II) alternative internal standards for gene and protein expression analysis.

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“The IOD was baseline that adjusted from Ponceau S-staining to correct possibly variations in total protein loading [66,69,70].”
Method
Novel ultrastructural findings on cardiac mitochondria of huddling Brandt's voles in mild cold environment
Wang, Z., Xu, J.-H., Mou, J., Kong, X.-T., Zou, J.-W., Xue, H., Wu, M., & Lai-xiang, X. (2020) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110766 · Cited by 24
Subacute Changes in Cleavage Processing of Amyloid Precursor Protein and Tau following Penetrating Traumatic Brain Injury
Cartagena, C. M., Mountney, A., Hwang, H. M., Swiercz, A. P., Rammelkamp, Z., Boutté, A. M., Shear, D. A., Tortella, F. C., & Schmid, K. E. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158576 · Cited by 24
“β-actin levels were measured for each blot but not used for normalization purposes due to significant increases at later time points (3d, 7d) post-injury (S5 Fig) as has been shown in other neuropathology models [32].”
Method
Priority Strategy of Intracellular Ca2+ Homeostasis in Skeletal Muscle Fibers during the Multiple Stresses of Hibernation
Zhang, J., Li, X., Ismail, F., Xu, S., Wang, Z., Peng, X., Yang, C., Chang, H., Wang, H., & Gao, Y. (2019) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells9010042 · Cited by 24
“As described previously [32,33], the original images captured with no gain were stored.”
A Proteomic Study of Memory After Imprinting in the Domestic Chick
Meparishvili, M., Nozadze, M., Margvelani, G., McCabe, B. J., & Solomonia, R. O. (2015) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00319 · Cited by 23
“…to actin or any other housekeeping protein because it cannot be guaranteed that such proteins are unaffected by imprinting (see also Dittmer and Dittmer, 2006; Li and Shen, 2013; Ghosh et al., 2014; Chen and Xu, 2015 for discussion of the unreliability of normalization to housekeeping proteins).”
BackgroundMethod
Morris Water Maze Training in Mice Elevates Hippocampal Levels of Transcription Factors Nuclear Factor (Erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 and Nuclear Factor Kappa B p65
Snow, W. M., Pahlavan, P. S., Djordjevic, J., McAllister, D., Platt, E. E., Alashmali, S. M., Bernstein, M. J., Suh, M., & Albensi, B. C. (2015) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2015.00070 · Cited by 23
“…control for normalization of Western blot data due to studies documenting experimentally-induced changes in actin levels (Gilda and Gomes, 2013; Li and Shen, 2013; RiveroGutierrez et al., 2014), we investigated putative differences in actin as a function ofMWM-training in the mouse hippocampus.”
BackgroundResult
Development and Validation of an In-Cell Western for Quantifying P-Glycoprotein Expression in Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial (hCMEC/D3) Cells
McInerney, M. P., Pan, Y., Short, J. L., & Nicolazzo, J. A. (2017) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.xphs.2016.12.017 · Cited by 22
“It has been w ell reported in the literature that house32 keeping protein expression levels fluctuate more th an was previously understood, and that 33 their high expression levels lead to saturated sign als.(23-26) Since each cell can possess only one 34”
Background
Perturbations in intracellular Ca2+ handling in skeletal muscle in the G93A*SOD1 mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Chin, E. R., Chen, D., Bobyk, K. D., & Mázala, D. A. G. (2014) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00237.2013 · Cited by 22
Novel reference genes in colorectal cancer identify a distinct subset of high stage tumors and their associated histologically normal colonic tissues
Xu, L., Luo, H., Wang, R., et al. (2019) · BMC Medical Genetics · doi:10.1186/s12881-019-0867-y · Cited by 22
Patient-Derived Fibroblasts With Presenilin-1 Mutations, That Model Aspects of Alzheimer’s Disease Pathology, Constitute a Potential Object for Early Diagnosis
López-Toledo, G., Silva‐Lucero, M., Herrera‐Díaz, J., García, D.-E., Arias‐Montaño, J., & Cárdenas‐Aguayo, M. D. C. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.921573 · Cited by 20
Cardiac hypertrophy in mice submitted to a swimming protocol: influence of training volume and intensity on myocardial renin-angiotensin system
Soares, D. D. S., Pinto, G. H., Lopes, A. G., Caetano, D. S. L., Nascimento, T. G., Andrades, M. É., Clausell, N., Rohde, L. E. P., Leitão, S. A. T., & Biolo, A. (2019) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00205.2018 · Cited by 21
“Results are expressed as percentage of change from baseline in arbitrary units (%AU) using the receptor densitometry-to-Coomassie blue densitometry ratio (13, 24, 28).”
Method
Effects of Tongue Exercise Frequency on Tongue Muscle Biology and Swallowing Physiology in a Rat Model
Krekeler, B. N., Weycker, J. M., & Connor, N. P. (2020) · Dysphagia · doi:10.1007/s00455-020-10105-2 · Cited by 19
Selection of reference genes as internal controls for gene expression in tissues of red abalone Haliotis rufescens (Mollusca, Vetigastropoda; Swainson, 1822)
López-Landavery, E. A., Portillo-López, A., Gallardo‐Escárate, C., & del Río-Portilla, M. Á. (2014) · Gene · doi:10.1016/j.gene.2014.08.002 · Cited by 18
Quantification of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein expression from mRNA vaccines using isotope dilution mass spectrometry
Sutton, W. J. H., Branham, P. J., Williamson, Y. M., Cooper, H. C., Najjar, F. N., Pierce, C. L., Barr, J. R., & Williams, T. L. (2023) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.04.044 · Cited by 18
“Protein expression is typically estimated by comparison against the levels of signal observed for proteins inherent in the cells, commonly called ‘‘housekeeping” (HK) proteins [34,35].”
Early evidence of stress in immortalized neurons exposed to diesel particles: the role of lipid reshaping behind oxidative stress and inflammation
Milani, C., Corsetto, P. A., Farina, F., Botto, L., Lonati, E., Massimino, L., Rizzo, A. M., Bulbarelli, A., & Palestini, P. (2018) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.tox.2018.07.017 · Cited by 18
Effects of PM2.5 Exposure on the ACE/ACE2 Pathway: Possible Implication in COVID-19 Pandemic
Botto, L., Lonati, E., Russo, S., Cazzaniga, E., Bulbarelli, A., & Palestini, P. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054393 · Cited by 18
“Accordingly, samples were normalized with respect to the total amount of proteins detected by Ponceau staining, allowing a straightforward correction for lane-to-lane variation [45,47].”
MethodResult
Changes in Muscarinic M2 Receptor Levels in the Cortex of Subjects with Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder and in Rats after Treatment with Mood Stabilisers and Antidepressants
Gibbons, A. S., Jeon, W. J., Scarr, E., & Dean, B. (2015) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyv118 · Cited by 18
“In completing these and the experiments comparing CHRM2 protein levels across psychiatric disorders, our experience agrees with the proposition that it is extremely difficult to find CNS reference proteins that, by definition, do not change levels between CNS regions, with disorders of the human CNS, or after drug tre…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Myo-Inositol Limits Kainic Acid-Induced Epileptogenesis in Rats
Kandashvili, M., Gamkrelidze, G. N., Tsverava, L., Lordkipanidze, T. G., Lepsveridze, E., Lagani, V., Burjanadze, M. A., Dashniani, M. G., Kokaia, M., & Solomonia, R. O. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23031198 · Cited by 17
“We have not normalized data with respect to any other housekeeping protein in brain tissue samples, because it cannot be guaranteed that such proteins are not affected by KA treatment [59,60].”
Background
The influence of propofol anesthesia exposure on nonaversive memory retrieval and expression of molecules involved in memory process in the dorsal hippocampus in peripubertal rats
Pavković, Ž., Milanović, D., Ruždijić, S., Kanazir, S., & Pešić, V. (2018) · Pediatric Anesthesia · doi:10.1111/pan.13396 · Cited by 16
The sigma‐1 receptor behaves as an atypical auxiliary subunit to modulate the functional characteristics of Kv1.2 channels expressed in HEK293 cells
Abraham, M. J., Flemming, K., Raymond, S., Wong, A. Y. C., & Bergeron, R. (2019) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14147 · Cited by 15
“This was done to ensure that normalization did not rely on a single protein, but rather the total profile of protein found in the crude cellular extract (Li and Shen 2013).”
Background
Cholesterol transporter proteins in HepG2 cells can be modulated by phenolic compounds present in Opuntia ficus-indica aqueous solutions
Ressaissi, A., Attia, N., Pacheco, R., Fale, P. L. V., & Serralheiro, M. L. (2019) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2019.103674 · Cited by 16
Current approaches and challenges in targeted absolute quantification of membrane proteins
Trötschel, C., & Poetsch, A. (2014) · PROTEOMICS · doi:10.1002/pmic.201400427 · Cited by 16
Evaluation of reference genes for RT-qPCR study in abalone Haliotis discus hannai during heavy metal overload stress
Lee, S. Y., & Nam, Y. K. (2016) · Fisheries and aquatic sciences · doi:10.1186/s41240-016-0022-z · Cited by 16
“…of recent studies have also claimed that these HKGs may not always be stable depending on aquatic species; they could be modulated by certain stimulatory treatments with variable expression levels under different physiological conditions (Li & Shen 2013; Taylor et al. 2013; Yuan et al. 2014).”
Background
Verification of suitable and reliable reference genes for quantitative real-time PCR during adipogenic differentiation in porcine intramuscular stromal-vascular cells
Li, X., Huang, K., Chen, F., et al. (2016) · animal · doi:10.1017/s1751731115002748 · Cited by 15
“In fact, commonly used ICGs can considerably vary between species, tissue types and experimental conditions (Li and Shen, 2013).”
Background
Myoinositol Attenuates the Cell Loss and Biochemical Changes Induced by Kainic Acid Status Epilepticus
Tsverava, L., Lordkipanidze, T. G., Lepsveridze, E., Nozadze, M., Kikvidze, M., & Solomonia, R. O. (2016) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2016/2794096 · Cited by 15
Human Interleukin-32γ Plays a Protective Role in an Experimental Model of Visceral Leishmaniasis in Mice
Gomes, R. S., Silva, M. V. T., dos Santos, J. C., et al. (2018) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.00796-17 · Cited by 15
Long-Term Effects of Myoinositol on Behavioural Seizures and Biochemical Changes Evoked by Kainic Acid Induced Epileptogenesis
Tsverava, L., Kandashvili, M., Margvelani, G., et al. (2019) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2019/4518160 · Cited by 15
Resveratrol Differently Modulates Group I Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Depending on Age in SAMP8 Mice
Sánchez-Melgar, A., Albasanz, J. L., Pallàs, M., & Martı́n, M. (2020) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00067 · Cited by 14
Biological validation of a novel process and product for quantitating western blots
Diller, T. C., Thompson, J., & Steer, B. A. (2020) · Journal of Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2020.12.012 · Cited by 14
Sulfur mustard induced nuclear translocation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase (GAPDH)
Steinritz, D., Weber, J., Balszuweit, F., Thiermann, H., & Schmidt, A. (2013) · Chemico-Biological Interactions · doi:10.1016/j.cbi.2013.06.015 · Cited by 14
Modulation of spatial memory and expression of hippocampal neurotransmitter receptors by selective lesion of medial septal cholinergic and GABAergic neurons
Dashniani, M. G., Burjanadze, M. A., Chkhikvishvili, N. C., Solomonia, R. O., Kandashvili, M., Naneishvili, T. L., Beselia, G. V., Kruashvili, L. B., & Chighladze, M. R. (2020) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-020-05889-6 · Cited by 12
Protective Effects of PGC-1α Activators on Ischemic Stroke in a Rat Model of Photochemically Induced Thrombosis
Shakova, F. M., Kirova, Y. I., Silachev, D. N., Romanova, G. A., & Morozov, S. G. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11030325 · Cited by 13
“Recent research shows that succinate is intensely produced by activated macrophages [102].”
Background
Reference genes to study the sex-biased expression of genes regulating Drosophila metabolism
Groef, S. D., Lopes, M. R., Winant, M., Rosschaert, E., Wilms, T., Bolckmans, L., Calevro, F., & Callaerts, P. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-58863-5 · Cited by 12
An Integrative Transcriptomic Analysis for Identifying Novel Target Genes Corresponding to Severity Spectrum in Spinal Muscular Atrophy
Chung-Wei, Y., Chen, C., Chou, W., Lin, H.-C., Jong, Y., Tsai, L., & Chuang, C. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157426 · Cited by 12
“We firstly confirmed that the expression of GAPDH in each sample is equally expressed in both SMAmice and controls since several housekeeping genes have been found to be differentially expressed in some neurodegenerative diseases in some circumstances at protein level [49, 50].”
Background
Mitochondrial fusion and fission proteins and the recognition memory of imprinting in domestic chicks
Margvelani, G., Meparishvili, M., Tevdoradze, E., McCabe, B., & Solomonia, R. (2017) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0000000000000936 · Cited by 9
Micro-RNAs, their target proteins, predispositions and the memory of filial imprinting
Margvelani, G., Meparishvili, M., Kiguradze, T., McCabe, B., & Solomonia, R. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35097-w · Cited by 11
Selection of Suitable Reference Genes for Analysis of Salivary Transcriptome in Non-Syndromic Autistic Male Children
Panahi, Y., Moghaddam, F. S., Ghasemi, Z., Jafari, M. H., Badv, R. S., Eskandari, M. R., & Pedram, M. (2016) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms17101711 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, the stability of expression for a particular HKG could also be dependent upon the tissue type/source used for RNA isolation and experimental design [10,11].”
Background
Mitochondrial Proteome Changes in Rett Syndrome
Golubiani, G., van Agen, L., Tsverava, L., Solomonia, R. O., & Müller, M. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12070956 · Cited by 12
“Therefore, to rule out any unreliability that might arise from normalization to housekeeping proteins [35], we consistently verified proper sample loading by Ponceau S staining as well as by the calibration with the mentioned protein standards (see also [34]).”
Method
Influence of early life status epilepticus on the developmental expression profile of the GluA2 subunit of AMPA receptors
Szczurowska, E., Ergang, P., Kubová, H., Druga, R., Salaj, M., & Mareš, P. (2016) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.05.039 · Cited by 11
“…staining as an alternative to B-actin and Ponceau S, showed its clear superiority as a loading control for Western blots (Gilda and Gomez, 2013; Li and Shen, 2013), therefore, in our research we also have decided to use Stain-Free staining and total protein content as a normalization factor.”
Nerve Growth Factor Shows Biphasic Expression during Adjuvant-Induced Neurogenic Inflammation
Gujar, V., Pande, R. D., & Das, S. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25074029 · Cited by 10
“All steps were taken to limit the number of animals used in the experiments.”
Background
Spatial proteomic differences in chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Alzheimer's disease, and primary age‐related tauopathy hippocampi
Richardson, T. E., Orr, M. E., Orr, T. C., Rohde, S. K., Ehrenberg, A. J., Thorn, E. L., Christie, T. D., Almazan, V. F., Afzal, R., Sanctis, C. D., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.14487 · Cited by 11
“32,33 All ROIs were re-normalized from our previous analysis 28 with the context of an additional hippocampal subregion (CA4) and an additional neuropathologic entity (CTE).”
Resistance wheel exercise from mid-life has minimal effect on sciatic nerves from old mice in which sarcopenia was prevented
Krishnan, V. S., White, Z. R., Terrill, J. R., Hodgetts, S. I., Fitzgerald, M., Shavlakadze, T., Harvey, A. R., & Grounds, M. D. (2017) · Biogerontology · doi:10.1007/s10522-017-9714-8 · Cited by 9
What's the norm in normalization? A frightening note on the use of RT-qPCR in the livestock science
Busato, S., Mezzetti, M., Logan, P., Aguilera, N., & Bionaz, M. (2018) · Gene · doi:10.1016/j.gene.2018.100003 · Cited by 9
“, ACTB and GAPDH, RNA18S), widespread during the days of northern blotting for their ubiquitous and strong expression, yet far from being a “gold standard” (Tricarico et al., 2002; Thellin et al., 1999; Li and Shen, 2013).”
Background
Skeletal muscle proteins important for work capacity are altered with type 2 diabetes — Effect of 10‐20‐30 training
Baasch‐Skytte, T., Gunnarsson, T. P., Fiorenza, M., & Bangsbo, J. (2021) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14681 · Cited by 8
“No housekeeping proteins were used as loading controls, as this procedure may increase the variation in the determination of the primary protein of interest (Goasdoue et al., 2016; Li & Shen, 2013; Murphy & Lamb, 2013).”
Method
Minocycline restores cognitive-relative altered proteins in young bile duct-ligated rat prefrontal cortex
Li, S.-W., Chen, Y.-C. D., Sheen, J., Hsu, M., Tain, Y., Chang, K., & Huang, L. (2017) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2017.03.023 · Cited by 9
The expression level of class III phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase controls the degree of compensatory nephron hypertrophy
Liu, T., Dai, C., Xu, J., Li, S., & Chen, J. (2020) · American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00381.2019 · Cited by 8
CaMKII is activated in opioid induced conditioned place preference, but αCaMKII Thr286 autophosphorylation is not necessary for its establishment
Andersen, J. M., Opdal, S. H., Müller, C. P., & Boix, F. (2020) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112676 · Cited by 7
“has already been shown that β-actin, or other “housekeeping” proteins, can be affected by the experimental conditions and therefore are not suitable as loading control [27,28].”
Background
Gasdermin D could be lost in the brain parenchyma infarct core and a pyroptosis-autophagy inhibition effect of Jie-Du-Huo-Xue decoction after stroke
Zhou, C., Qiu, S., Wang, F.-M., Liu, Y.-C., Hu, W. M., Yang, M.-L., Liu, W., & Li, H. (2024) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1449452 · Cited by 8
“New studies suggested that in neurological diseases, housekeeping proteins such as β -actin and GAPDH may be changed after injury or in neuropathological states (Li and Shen, 2013).”
Background
Total protein staining with Congo red as an alternative loading control for western blot analysis
Wang, J., Li, M., Zhang, J., & Xu, C. (2021) · Biotechnic & Histochemistry · doi:10.1080/10520295.2021.2008008 · Cited by 7
“Consistent with earlier reports (Welinder and Ekblad 2011; Eaton et al. 2013; Li and Shen 2013), we observed the saturation point for housekeeping proteins is < 10 μg total protein for WB analysis and only in this range can housekeeping proteins serve as good loading controls.”
Result
Development and Validation of a Western Blot Method to Quantify Mini-Dystrophin in Human Skeletal Muscle Biopsies
Soderstrom, C. I., Larsen, J., Owen, C., Gifondorwa, D. J., Beidler, D. R., Yong, F. H., Conrad, P., Neubert, H., Moore, S. A., & Hassanein, M. (2022) · The AAPS Journal · doi:10.1208/s12248-022-00776-0 · Cited by 9
Characterization of LcGAPC and its transcriptional response to salt and alkali stress in two ecotypes of Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvelev
Lu, Q., Meng, X., Yang, F., et al. (2020) · Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment · doi:10.1080/13102818.2020.1719020 · Cited by 7
Long-term effects of myo-inositol on traumatic brain injury: Epigenomic and transcriptomic studies
Oganezovi, N., Lagani, V., Kikvidze, M., Gamkrelidze, G. N., Tsverava, L., Lepsveridze, E., Kelly, K. M., & Solomonia, R. O. (2024) · IBRO Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ibneur.2024.01.009 · Cited by 6
“” We have not normalized obtained density data with respect to any other housekeeping protein in brain tissue samples because it cannot be guaranteed that such proteins are not affected by CCI e.g. (Li and Shen, 2013).”
Background

Authors: Li, R., & Shen, Y.
Affiliations: Roskamp Institute (US)
Corresponding author: Li, Rena
ORCID: Li, Rena
Shen, Yong
Venue: Life Sciences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2013-04
Volume: 92
Issue: 13
Pages: 747-751
ISSN: 0024-3205 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.02.014
PMC: PMC3614345
OpenAlex: W2016751415
Semantic Scholar: fc8263e15b99660ac08ebfffcd99a11bb0edf289
Cited by: 186
References: 33
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 3
FWCI: 1.47
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Life Sciences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Alzheimer's Association (IIRG-07-59510, IIRG-09-61521)
American Health Assistance Foundation (G2006-118)
National Institute of Health (R01AG032441-01, R01AG025888-01)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology Techniques and Applications
Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Spectroscopy › Advanced Proteomics Techniques and Applications
Health Sciences › Health Professions › Medical Laboratory Technology › Clinical Laboratory Practices and Quality Control
Keywords: housekeeping proteins, Western blot, beta-actin, beta-tubulin, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer's disease, neuropathology, tissue-specific gene expression
MeSH terms: Actins, Animals, Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenases, Humans, Models, Molecular, Neurons, Neurosciences, Proteins, Tubulin, Genes, Essential, Gene Expression Profiling

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An old method facing a new challenge: Re-visiting housekeeping proteins as internal reference control for neuroscience research

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