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Intelligence and neural efficiency
Abstract
We review research on the neural efficiency hypothesis of intelligence, stating that brighter individuals display lower (more efficient) brain activation while performing cognitive tasks [Haier, R.J., Siegel, B.V., Nuechterlein, K.H., Hazlett, E., Wu, J.C., Paek, J., Browning, H.L., Buchsbaum, M.S., 1988. Cortical glucose metabolic rate correlates of abstract reasoning and attention studied with positron emission tomography. Intelligence 12, 199-217]. While most early studies confirmed this hypothesis later research has revealed contradictory evidence or has identified some moderating variables like sex, task type, task complexity or brain area. Neuroscientific training studies suggest that neural efficiency also seems to be a function of the amount and quality of learning. From integrating this evidence we conclude that neural efficiency might arise when individuals are confronted with tasks of (subjectively) low to moderate task difficulty and it is mainly observable for frontal brain areas. This is true for easier novel cognitive tasks or after sufficient practice allowing participants to develop appropriate (efficient) strategies to deal with the task. In very complex tasks more able individuals seem to invest more cortical resources resulting in positive correlations between brain usage and cognitive ability. Based on the reviewed evidence we propose future empirical approaches in this field.
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“To exclude the effects of age, gender, intellectual ability and depression,31–33 we included these measures as regressors.”
From Ventral striatum dysfunction in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder: functional MRI study (2015) · cites this paper as [32]
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“org September 2016 | Volume 7 | Article 148 Such observations have given rise to neural efficiency theory (50) that posits that the efficient use of resources decreases cognitive load and thus enhances performance.”
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“Our results further extend this model, while also invoking predictive coding (Kilner et al., 2007a, 2007b) and neural efficiency (Neubauer & Fink, 2009), to action anticipation associated with varying levels of expertise reflected by a mixture of visual/perceptual familiarity of the observed action…”
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“According to the NEH, people with higher intelligence recruit lesser cortical volume compared to those with average/lower intelligence when performing the same cognitive task, and this translates into better behavioural performance (Neubauer & Fink, 2009; Dunst et al. 2014).”
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Bruner, E., Martín‐Loeches, M., Burgaleta, M., & Colom, R. (2011) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.02.004 · Cited by 25
“It is worth noting that, within the fronto-parietal system, functional changes at the parietal areas might be more influenced by the environment and less determined by genetic factors (Neubauer & Fink, 2009).”
BackgroundFleischer, V., Muthuraman, M., Anwar, A. R., González‐Escamilla, G., Radetz, A., Gracien, R., Bittner, S., Luessi, F., Meuth, S. G., Zipp, F., et al. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-57895-x · Cited by 25
Brain activity during a working memory task in different postures: an EEG study
Jung, J., Cho, H.-Y., & Kang, C. (2020) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2020.1784467 · Cited by 25
Li, X., Li, Y., Wang, X., & Hu, W. (2022) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsac052 · Cited by 32
“The PFC is involved in top-down control during the formation of novel associations (Neubauer and Fink, 2009; Lu and Hao, 2019).”
BackgroundTakeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Nouchi, R., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Sekuguchi, A., Kotozaki, Y., Nakagawa, S., Nagase, T., Miyauchi, C. M., et al. (2012) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22167 · Cited by 26
“In addition, in young adults, while superior intellectual abilities are often associated with decreased functional activation in the relevant region, they are also often associated with more GM structures in the relevant regions [Neubauer and Fink, 2009].”
BackgroundHerzmann, G., Minor, G. N., & Adkins, M. (2016) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2016.10.028 · Cited by 25
Neuroimaging in the Kleine-Levin Syndrome
Engström, M., Latini, F., & Landtblom, A. (2018) · Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s11910-018-0866-y · Cited by 25
Brain aging and psychometric intelligence: a longitudinal study
Jäncke, L., Sele, S., Liem, F., Oschwald, J., & Mérillat, S. (2019) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-019-02005-5 · Cited by 25
“For example, functional connectivity patterns (Langer et al 2012), the efficiency of neurophysiological activation (Neubauer and Fink 2009), or particular neurophysiological oscillation patterns (Thatcher et al 2008) may account for even larger portions of variance when assessing relationships…”
BackgroundZhang, L., Gan, J. Q., & Wang, H. (2015) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-015-9345-1 · Cited by 25
From Gaze to Game: A Systematic Review of Eye-Tracking Applications in Basketball
Alemanno, M., Pompeo, I. D., Marcaccio, M., Canini, D., Curcio, G., & Migliore, S. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15040421 · Cited by 24
“…observation that expert athletes exhibit prolonged QE durations prior to successful free throws (e.g., [9,12]) aligns with the neural efficiency hypothesis, which posits that expert performers require fewer cognitive resources for task execution due to optimized neural functioning [34,35].”
Influence of Judo Experience on Neuroelectric Activity During a Selective Attention Task
Faro, H., Machado, D. G. D. S., Bortolotti, H., do Nascimento, P. H. D., Moioli, R. C., Elsangedy, H. M., & Fontes, E. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02838 · Cited by 21
Huang, M., Lang, J., Li, J., Qin, Z., & Cao, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1189841 · Cited by 28
“With increasing skill levels, a decrease in neural activity in a particular brain region is referred to as neural efficiency (Neubauer and Fink, 2009; Karim et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSex differences in neural efficiency: Are they due to the stereotype threat effect?
Dunst, B., Benedek, M., Bergner, S., Athenstaedt, U., & Neubauer, A. C. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.06.007 · Cited by 24
“The arousal associated with this challenge could also result in increased brain activation, especially in high IQ boys who typically show lower brain activation (Neubauer & Fink, 2009).”
Self-citationAlzheimers Disease and Intelligence
Yeo, R. A., Arden, R., & Jung, R. E. (2011) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/156720511795745276 · Cited by 25
“These and subsequent studies have been interpreted such that brighter people need to work less hard because their brains are organized more efficiently (the “neural efficiency hypothesis”), though task type and difficulty level may moderate this relationship [85, 86].”
BackgroundFour weeks of high cadence training alter brain cortical activity in cyclists
Ludyga, S., Hottenrott, K., & Gronwald, T. (2016) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1198045 · Cited by 24
“The observed functional adaptation of the brain after HCT might be interpreted in terms of the neural efficiency hypothesis, which posits that experts compared to nonexperts complete a task with less neural activation particularly in the frontal region (Neubauer & Fink, 2009).”
BackgroundFluid intelligence, emotional intelligence, and the Iowa Gambling Task in children
Li, D., Liu, T., Zhang, X., Wang, M., Wang, D., & Shi, J. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.04.004 · Cited by 33
Ramchandran, K., Zeien, E., & Andreasen, N. C. (2019) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2019.02.006 · Cited by 22
The Effects of Working Memory Training on Brain Activity
Nęcka, E., Gruszka, A., Hampshire, A., Sarzyńska-Wawer, J., Anicai, A.-E., Orzechowski, J., Nowak, M., Wójcik, N., Sandrone, S., & Soreq, E. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11020155 · Cited by 23
“The neural efficiency hypothesis in intelligence has been verified mostly in studies using PET [45] or EEG [44,47].”
MethodDreszer, J., Grochowski, M., Lewandowska, M., Nikadon, J., Gorgol, J., Bałaj, B., Finc, K., Duch, W., Kałamała, P., Chuderski, A., et al. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25162 · Cited by 23
“…team extensively explored the brain substrates of intelligence in the context of the neural efficiency hypothesis and found more focused activations during performance on various problem-solving tasks in highly-intelligent—compared to averageintelligent persons (Neubauer & Fink, 2009a, 2009b).”
BackgroundGong, A., Liu, J., Jiang, C., & Fu, Y. (2018) · Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience · doi:10.1155/2018/4097561 · Cited by 23
Callow, D. D., Purcell, J. J., Won, J., & Smith, J. C. (2022) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108207 · Cited by 24
Carius, D., Herold, F., Clauß, M., Kaminski, E., Wagemann, F., Sterl, C., & Ragert, P. (2023) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-023-00963-y · Cited by 27
“…for movement frequency), fit to the neural efficiency hypothesis postulating that experts utilize cortical resources more efficiently than novices (e.g., higher activation on task-relevant and “compensational” brain regions in novices as compared to experts) (Li & Smith 2021; Neubauer & Fink 2009).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMilla, K., Bakhshipour, E., Bodt, B., & Getchell, N. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00156 · Cited by 23
“Moreover, the present study did not stratify participants based on individual differences shown to reflect distinct brain activity, such as fluid intelligence and spatial ability (Lamm et al., 2001; Neubauer and Fink, 2009; Dunst et al., 2014).”
BackgroundQiu, C., Zhai, Q., & Chen, S. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14060499 · Cited by 22
“Therefore, it is recommended that people with ADHD participate in exercise interventions for multiple motor skill types.”
BackgroundHigh individual alpha frequency brains run fast, but it does not make them smart
Ociepka, M., Kałamała, P., & Chuderski, A. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101644 · Cited by 23
Mateos, D. M., Krumm, G., Filippetti, V. A., & Gutiérrez, M. (2022) · NeuroSci · doi:10.3390/neurosci3020025 · Cited by 24
“Events related to alpha band desynchronization and synchronization are especially sensitive to the performance of cognitive tasks and higher cognitive abilities [64,65].”
BackgroundBehavioral and neurophysiological aspects of working memory impairment in children with dyslexia
Wang, J., Huo, S., Wu, K. C., Mo, J., Wong, W. L., & Maurer, U. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-16729-8 · Cited by 28
What Does “Being an Expert” Mean to the Brain? Functional Specificity and Connectivity in Expertise
Jeon, H.-A., & Friederici, A. (2016) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhw329 · Cited by 23
“According to functional connectivity measured by electroencephalogram activity, individuals with lower neural efficiency demonstrated a higher coherence of electroencephalogram activity in various brain regions, whereas people with higher neural efficiency manifested a lower coherence within only a few and focused bra…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAdvances in the Neuroscience of Intelligence: from Brain Connectivity to Brain Perturbation
Santarnecchi, E., & Rossi, S. (2016) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2016.89 · Cited by 22
“…Rushton & Ankney, 2009), its structural wiring(Chiang et al., 2009), the magnitude of local coherence (Wang et al., 2011) and system efficiency (Neubauer & Fink, 2009; Santarnecchi et al., 2014; van den Heuvel et al., 2009) may explain a consistent portion of individual variability in…”
BackgroundKang, J.-S., Ojha, A., Lee, G., & Lee, M. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.01.002 · Cited by 23
Cognitive Efficiency in Alzheimer’s Disease is Associated with Increased Occipital Connectivity
Marco, M. D., Duzzi, D., Meneghello, F., & Venneri, A. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-161164 · Cited by 23
Impact of Tea and Coffee Consumption on Cognitive Performance: An fNIRS and EDA Study
Sargent, A., Watson, J., Topoglu, Y., Ye, H., Suri, R., & Ayaz, H. (2020) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app10072390 · Cited by 21
“conducted a literature review of the neural efficiency hypothesis and concluded that it is observable when individuals are presented with tasks of low difficulty and is most frequently observed in frontal brain regions [21].”
BackgroundFazekas, C., Avian, A., Noehrer, R., Matzer, F., Vajda, C., Hannich, H. J., & Neubauer, A. C. (2020) · Wiener klinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1007/s00508-020-01670-5 · Cited by 24
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Neubauer, A. C., & Fink, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Graz (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Neubauer, Aljoscha C.
- Venue
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-07
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1004-1023
- ISSN
- 0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2072541188
- Cited by
- 878
- References
- 149
- Citations by year
- 2026: 115 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 40.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Creativity in Education and Neuroscience
- Keywords
- neural efficiency hypothesis, intelligence, brain activation, cognitive task difficulty, frontal cortex, cortical glucose metabolism, cognitive training, learning, moderators, abstract thinking, attention
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Models, Neurological, Practice, Psychological, Professional Competence, Sex Characteristics
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