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Timing deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Evidence from neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies
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Relatively recently, neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies have indicated that individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have deficits in a range of timing functions and their underlying neural networks. Despite this evidence, timing deficits in ADHD are still somewhat neglected in the literature and mostly omitted from reviews on ADHD. There is therefore a lack of integrative reviews on the up-to-date evidence on neurocognitive and neurofunctional deficits of timing in ADHD and their significance with respect to other behavioural and cognitive deficits. The present review provides a synthetic overview of the evidence for neurocognitive and neurofunctional deficits in ADHD in timing functions, and integrates this evidence with the cognitive neuroscience literature of the neural substrates of timing. The review demonstrates that ADHD patients are consistently impaired in three major timing domains, in motor timing, perceptual timing and temporal foresight, comprising several timeframes spanning milliseconds, seconds, minutes and longer intervals up to years. The most consistent impairments in ADHD are found in sensorimotor synchronisation, duration discrimination, reproduction and delay discounting. These neurocognitive findings of timing deficits in ADHD are furthermore supported by functional neuroimaging studies that show dysfunctions in the key inferior fronto-striato-cerebellar and fronto-parietal networks that mediate the timing functions. Although there is evidence that these timing functions are inter-correlated with other executive functions that are well established to be impaired in the disorder, in particular working memory, attention, and to a lesser degree inhibitory control, the key timing deficits appear to survive when these functions are controlled for, suggesting independent cognitive deficits in the temporal domain. There is furthermore strong evidence for an association between timing deficits and behavioural measures of impulsiveness and inattention, suggesting that timing problems are key to the clinical behavioural profile of ADHD. Emerging evidence shows that the most common treatment of ADHD with the dopamine agonist and psychostimulant Methylphenidate attenuates most timing deficits in ADHD and normalises the abnormally blunted recruitment of the underlying fronto-striato-cerebellar networks. Timing function deficits in ADHD, therefore, next to executive function deficits, form an independent impairment domain, and should receive more attention in neuropsychological, neuroimaging, and pharmacological basic research as well as in translational research aimed to develop pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment of abnormal timing behaviour and cognition in ADHD.
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“as well as in temporal processing (i.e., motor timing, time estimation and temporal foresight), with most consistent deficits in time discrimination and estimation tasks (Rubia et al., 2009a; Noreika et al., 2013).”
From Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation (2018) · cites this paper as Noreika et al., 2013
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“accumulating evidence indicates that timing functions are impaired in a variety of developmental disorders including ADHD [32,33], dyslexia [34], and autism [35,36].”
From The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
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“However, impairment has also been found in so-called “hot” EF functions of motivation control and reward-related decision making, as measured in temporal discounting and gambling tasks, with, however, more inconsistent findings (Willcutt et al., 2008; Noreika et al., 2013; Plichta and Scheres, 2014).”
From Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation (2018) · cites this paper as Noreika et al., 2013
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“Few studies have measured brain response to delay discounting tasks, which are impaired in ADHD, with, however, also some negative findings (Noreika et al., 2013).”
From Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation (2018) · cites this paper as Noreika et al., 2013
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“Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is associated with inhibition, attention, working memory (WM), and timing deficits 2, 3, 4, 5”
From Effects of stimulants on brain function in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2014) · cites this paper as [5]
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“, 2013) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (Rubia et 5 al., 2009; Noreika et al., 2013), a large body of data supporting the role of the striatum and its 6 dopaminergic input in the processing of time also comes from brain imaging studies in 7 humans (Harrington et al.”
Backgroundvon Schnehen, A., Hobeika, L., Houot, M., Recher, A., Puisieux, F. L., Huvent‐Grelle, D., & Samson, S. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.12.27.573413 · Cited by 1
Sieroka, N. (2024) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783111403632-013 · Cited by 1
Mette, C., Zielke, A., & Groen, Y. (2016) · Neuropraxis · doi:10.1007/s12474-015-0115-y
Temporalità vissuta nell'esperienza traumatica
Acquarini, E. (2016) · INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY TRAUMA STUDIES · doi:10.3280/ijm2016-001007
Fellus, O., & Fellus, D. P. (2016) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0034-6.ch013
The Effects of Synchronous Versus Asynchronous Temporal Patterns On Sequential Learning
Ross, K. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/8802169
Carlisi, C. O. (2017) · Research Portal (King's College London)
8.14 Interactiesyndroom: aandachts-, contacten gedragsproblemen
Sizoo, B. B. (2017) · Bohn Stafleu van Loghum eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-368-2052-3_45
Temporal Structure Modulates ERP Correlates of Visual Sequential Learning.
Ross, K., & Conway, C. M. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Generalized timing impairment in Autism Spectrum Disorders across time scales and paradigmsPreprint
Isaksson, S., Salomäki, S., Tuominen, J., Arstila, V., Falter, C. M., & Noreika, V. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/9tgy5
Self-citationRaviotta, S. (2017) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc984211
White Matter Structure and Delay Tolerance in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Rubia, K. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.01.006
Self-citationMarx, I., Reis, O., & Berger, C. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027651 · Cited by 1
“Whereas motor timing refers to the temporal organisation of motor behaviour as measured by free tapping or rhythm reproduction, perceptual timing encompasses tasks that require the estimation of explicitly attended temporal intervals.(3) A variety of perceptual timing paradigms have been applied in the domain of ADHD,…”
MethodSelf-Melioration, Autonomy and Music-Enriched Self-Control: On Enhancing Children’s Attention
Gerner, A. (2019) · Advances in neuroethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10677-5_11
Neuromodulation in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Toward a Precision Psychiatry Approach
Salerno, L., Gaur, S., Grassi, G., & Pallanti, S. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43356-7_9
Manuel d'enseignement de psychomotricité
Puyjarinet, F., & Coutand, M. (2018) · De Boeck Supérieur eBooks · doi:10.3917/dbu.albar.2017.01.0094
Objective Assessment Application for Preschool Child Development
Odendaal, G., Clay, A. M., & Vandenheever, D. (2022) · American Journal of Science & Engineering · doi:10.15864/ajse.3201
Time will tell: Sluggish Cognitive Tempo, attention and timing functioning in adults
Müller, K. (2021) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · doi:10.33612/diss.171005987
Remédiation orthophonique par la musique
Henrard, S. (2019) · De Boeck Supérieur eBooks · doi:10.3917/dbu.estie.2019.01.0133
Prospective and Retrospective Verbal Time Estimation in Children with ADHD
Walg, M., & Prior, H. (2021) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0330-y
“As such, psychological timing functions are commonly subcategorized into motor timing, perceptual timing, and temporal foresight (cf. Noreika et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDeppert, V. C. (2021) · Publication Server of Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (Goethe University Frankfurt) · doi:10.21248/gups.64500
Leentjens, A. F. G., & Verhey, F. R. J. (2017) · Bohn Stafleu van Loghum eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-368-2052-3_30
Brydges, C. R., Ozolnieks, K. L., & Roberts, G. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wk5as
Fellus, O., & Fellus, D. P. (2015) · Advances in early childhood and K-12 education · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9452-1.ch006
Timmerman, R. B. W., Resch, C., Hurks, P. P. M., Wassenberg, R., & Hendriksen, J. G. M. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2023.2177855
“Several studies including older children indicated for instance a relation between time awareness problems and deficits in attentional functions (ADHD) (e.g., Barkley, 1997a; Noreika et al., 2013).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Noreika, V., Falter, C. M., & Rubia, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Turku (FI)
- University of Groningen (NL)
- King's College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Noreika, Valdas
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-01
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 235-266
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2136109876
- Semantic Scholar
- 91baa62bc9566578be57372069278ef520b7ae43
- Cited by
- 339
- References
- 246
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 16
- FWCI
- 13.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) action on Time in Mental Activity (TIMELY, TD0904)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, timing deficits, temporal processing, duration discrimination, delay discounting, frontoparietal network, executive function, working memory, impulsivity, inattention, methylphenidate, dopamine agonists
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Perceptual Disorders, Time Perception, Neuroimaging
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