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Sex differences in variance of intelligence across childhood
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“Independent of risk group, male children exhibited lower levels of verbal and nonverbal functioning than female children.36,37”
From Beyond Autism: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium Study of High-Risk Children at Three Years of Age (2013) · cites this paper as [36]
In the citing paper
“These findings are consistent with reports from large N studies of a female advantage in both verbal and nonverbal functioning among low-risk children between 1 and 3 years of age [36–39].”
From Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study (2015) · cites this paper as [38]
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Women's underrepresentation in science: sociocultural and biological considerations
Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0014412 · Cited by 957
“In a recent longitudinal analysis of more than 10,000 British children, Arden and Plomin (2006) reported that when they extracted the first principal component from a battery of cognitive tests, including (at older ages) mathematics tests, greater male variance was found at ages 3, 4, 7, 9, and 10 years. Hence, greate…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00019.x · Cited by 603
“These benchmarks are useful to keep in mind when analyzing group differences at the extreme tails of ability distributions (Arden & Plomin, 2006; Feingold, 1995).”
BackgroundEriksson, M., Marschik, P. B., Tulviste, T., Almgren, M., Pérez Pereira, M., Wehberg, S., Marjanovič‐Umek, L., Gayraud, F., Kovacevic, M., & Gallego, C. (2012) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-835x.2011.02042.x · Cited by 438
“Equal variance in language skills for girls and boys below the age of 3 years is compatible with the findings of both Arden and Plomin (2006) and the review of Feingold (1992).”
BackgroundResultBeyond Autism: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium Study of High-Risk Children at Three Years of Age
Messinger, D., Young, G. S., Ozonoff, S., Dobkins, K., Carter, A., Zwaigenbaum, L., Landa, R. J., Charman, T., Stone, W. L., Constantino, J. N., et al. (2013) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.12.011 · Cited by 290
“Independent of risk group, male children exhibited lower levels of verbal and nonverbal functioning than female children.(36,37) These findings are TABLE 4 Risk Group and Sex by Latent Class”
Haworth, C., Davis, O., & Plomin, R. (2012) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2012.91 · Cited by 467
Self-citationEarly sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study
Messinger, D. S., Young, G. S., Webb, S. J., Ozonoff, S., Bryson, S. E., Carter, A., Carver, L., Charman, T., Chawarska, K., Curtin, S., et al. (2015) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0027-y · Cited by 207
“These findings are consistent with reports from large N studies of a female advantage in both verbal and nonverbal functioning among low-risk children between 1 and 3 years of age [36–39].”
ResultSex Differences in Variability in General Intelligence: A New Look at the Old Question
Johnson, W., Carothers, A. D., & Deary, I. J. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00096.x · Cited by 202
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“greater male variability in cognition and general intelligence (Arden and Plomin 2006; Baye and Monseur 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGreater male than female variability in regional brain structure across the lifespan
Wierenga, L. M., Doucet, G. E., Dima, D., Agartz, I., Aghajani, M., Akudjedu, T. N., Albajes‐Eizagirre, A., Alnæs, D., Alpert, K. I., Andreassen, O. A., et al. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25204 · Cited by 135
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“This appears to be the case with human intelligence and behavior (e.g. Arden & Plomin, 2006; Deary et al., 2003; Heim, 1970; Nowell & Hedges, 1998) as well as with performance at universities as shown here and by others (Deary et al., 2003; Mellanby et al., 2000; Smith & Nylor, 2001).”
Men, women and STEM: Why the differences and what should be done?
Stewart-Williams, S., & Halsey, L. G. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/0890207020962326 · Cited by 117
“The sex difference in IQ variability, for instance, appears before children begin school (Arden & Plomin, 2006).”
Background9. Variance Function Regressions for Studying Inequality
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“For example, Arden and Plomin (2006) found that girls demonstrated a mean advantage on a g factor at ages 2, 3, 4, and 7.”
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“Although this prediction is supported by some experimental and correlational studies [11,48,49] other researchers have found the opposite pattern (i.”
ResultHe, W., & Wong, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626911 · Cited by 72
“Mean Analyses Because gender differences in variability could be related to or independent of mean differences (Arden and Plomin, 2006), and both variability and mean analyses are necessary to generate a more complete picture with respect to the understanding of the gender-creativity link (He and Wong, 2011; Karwowski…”
BackgroundSex Differences in Intelligence
Halpern, D. F., Beninger, A., & Straight, C. A. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977244.014 · Cited by 59
Individual differences in developmental plasticity: A role for early androgens?
Giudice, M. D., Barrett, E. S., Belsky, J., Hartman, S., Martel, M. M., Sangenstedt, S., & Kuzawa, C. W. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.02.025 · Cited by 59
“As a result, men end up being over-represented at both the high and low end of the intelligence distribution; the same pattern is found in measures of academic performance (e.g., Arden and Plomin, 2006; Johnson et al., 2008; Lehre et al., 2009).”
A Role for the X Chromosome in Sex Differences in Variability in General Intelligence?
Johnson, W., Carothers, A. D., & Deary, I. J. (2009) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01168.x · Cited by 57
Sex differences across different racial ability levels: Theories of origin and societal consequences
Nyborg, H. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.04.005 · Cited by 55
“Arden and Plomin (2006) found that males show greater variance in general intelligence from age 2 and concluded that education is not the cause.”
BackgroundInfluentialGender differences in latent cognitive abilities in children aged 2 to 7
Palejwala, M. H., & Fine, J. G. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.11.004 · Cited by 63
“…Reynolds et al., 2008; Rosén, 1995), whereas studies that have used an observed variable approach have found support for more male variability (Arden & Plomin, 2006; Calvin, Fernandes, Smith, Visscher, & Deary, 2010; Deary, Thorpe, Wilson, Starr, & Whalley, 2003; Dykiert et al., 2009; Strand,…”
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Greater male variability in creativity: A latent variables approach
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Recommendations for a Better Understanding of Sex and Gender in the Neuroscience of Mental Health
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Measuring Sex Differences and Similarities
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The Impasse on Gender Differences in Intelligence: a Meta-Analysis on WISC Batteries
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“Most studies concluded there is a male superiority (e.g. Flores-Mendoza et al., 2013; Jackson & Rushton, 2006; Lynn & Irwing, 2004), while some reported that females outperform males on the g-factor (e.g. Arden & Plomin, 2006; Reynolds et al., 2008).”
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“For many behavioral traits, the variability among men exceeds the variability among women, and this can occur even in the absence of mean level differences (Arden and Plomin 2006; Lehre et al. 2009).”
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Brunner, M., Gogol, K., Sonnleitner, P., Keller, U., Krauß, S., & Preckel, F. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.05.009 · Cited by 42
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Self-citationStudent characteristics affecting the recognition of high cognitive ability by teachers and peers
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Sex Differences in Variability in Personality: A Study in Four Samples
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“…variability between men than between women: Men tend to be overrepresented in highly select samples as well as in some types of mental retardation (Arden & Plomin, 2006 ; Benbow, 1988 ; Deary, Thorpe, Wilson, Starr, & Whalley, 2003 ; Feingold, 1995 ; Hedges & Friedman, 1993 ; Hedges & Nowell,…”
BackgroundMeta‐analytic findings reveal lower means but higher variances in visuospatial ability in dyslexia
Chamberlain, R., Brunswick, N., Siev, J. J., & McManus, I. C. (2018) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12321 · Cited by 33
“…of increased variance in one subpopulation has been most notably employed in the study of sex differences in intelligence and mathematical ability (Arden & Plomin, 2006; Halpern et al., 2007; Hyde & Mertz, 2009; Irwing & Lynn, 2005), leading some authors to claim that, ‘a small difference in…”
Converging evidence for greater male variability in time, risk, and social preferences
Thöni, C., & Volk, S. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2026112118 · Cited by 36
“Indeed, GMV has been found for a number of attributes including physical characteristics such as weight, height and blood parameters (12), brain structure (22), physical aggression (23), verbal and spatial performance (24), math performance (25), and intelligence (26).”
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Deep learning identifies morphological determinants of sex differences in the pre-adolescent brain
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The role of intelligence in decision‐making in early adolescence
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Greater Male Variability in Cooperation: Meta-Analytic Evidence for an Evolutionary Perspective
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“Similar differences have been found in measures of mathematical, verbal, and spatial performance (Hyde, 2014), intelligence (Arden & Plomin, 2006), and physical aggression (Pomiankowski & Møller, 1995), to name a few.”
BackgroundThe role of height in the sex difference in intelligence
Satoshi Kanazawa, A., & Reyniers, D. J. (2009) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/27784427 · Cited by 25
“Finally, Arden and Plomin's (2006) longitu dinal study of white British twins from birth through age 10 showed that although girls had significantly higher mean general intelligence from age 2 to 7, boys had a significantly higher mean by age 10.”
BackgroundHe, W. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02331 · Cited by 28
“In fact, researchers have increasingly recognized the merits of adopting a developmental approach to examining sex differences in cognitive functioning (e.g., Hyde, 2005; Arden and Plomin, 2006; Eriksson et al., 2012; He et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMethodNg, E. S., Posch, A., Köllen, T., Kraiczy, N. D., & Thom, N. (2022) · BRQ Business Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/23409444221085587 · Cited by 25
“We also know from past research that gender differences exist because of sex-specific developmental pathways (see Arden & Plomin, 2006).”
Age and Gender Differences in the Variability of Vocational Interests
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Greater Male Variability in Creativity Outside the WEIRD World
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“For instance, men usually show higher variance in their intelligence scores than women, an effect that scholars have termed the greater male variability hypothesis (Arden & Plomin, 2006; Johnson, Carothers,&Deary, 2008).”
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A distributional approach to understanding generational differences: What do you mean they vary?
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“Consistent with the previous findings [19,25,37,38], the current research demonstrated greater boys’ variance and the overrepresentation of boys in the lower and higher tail of the distribution when examining the full age range two to eight.”
InfluentialSex Differences in Intelligence
Halpern, D. F., & Wai, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770422.015 · Cited by 19
Sex Differences in Variability in Vocational Interests: Evidence from Two Large Samples
Päßler, K. (2015) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2010 · Cited by 20
“Past research on sex differences in variance has demonstrated greater male variability in general intelligence and specific abilities in both adults and children (Arden & Plomin, 2006; Hyde, Lindberg, Linn, Ellis, & Williams, 2008; Johnson, Carothers, & Deary, 2008).”
BackgroundDo Psychological Sex Differences Reflect Evolutionary Bisexual Partitioning?
Trofimova, I. N. (2015) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485 · Cited by 18
Scant evidence for Spearman’s law of diminishing returns in middle childhood
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Self-citationBulut, O., Cormier, D. C., Aquilina, A. M., & Bulut, H. C. (2021) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence9030035 · Cited by 16
“Although there are further studies indicating a significant interaction between age and sex in intelligence (e.g., Arden and Plomin 2006; Lynn and Kanazawa 2011), other researchers reported findings that were inconsistent with Lynn’s developmental theory (e.g., Keith et al. 2008; Savage-McGlynn…”
BackgroundResultRetesting the greater male variability hypothesis in mainland China: A cross-regional study
Ju, C., Duan, Y., & You, X. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.021 · Cited by 16
Ideological Bias in the Psychology of Sex and Gender
Giudice, M. D. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29148-7_28 · Cited by 18
Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences
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“In a longitudinal study of intelligence among British children born in the 1990s, boys exhibited greater score variance than girls did, beginning at age 3 ( Arden & Plomin, 2006 ), and by age 10, boys were overrepresented in the top 10% of test-takers.”
BackgroundConversation Initiation of Mothers, Fathers, and Toddlers in their Natural Home Environment
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Sex differences in educational attainment
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“Sex differences in variance of intelligence emerge before preschool (Arden & Plomin, 2006) and so they are not determined by educational influences but they may cause differences in variance of educational attainment.”
BackgroundSchool context and gender differences in mathematical performance among school graduates in Russia
Bessudnov, A., & Makarov, A. (2015) · International Studies in Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/09620214.2014.1000937 · Cited by 15
“Arden and Plomin (2006) looked at the variability of intelligence among children of ages 2–10 and found greater”
BackgroundGreater male variability in overexcitabilities: Domain-specific patterns
He, W., & Wong, W. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.002 · Cited by 14
Evolutionary genomics of human intellectual disability
Crespi, B. J., Summers, K., & Dorus, S. (2009) · Evolutionary Applications · doi:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2009.00098.x · Cited by 12
“…reiterated by other authors as more evidence on the genetic bases of cognitive abilities and intellectual disability has become available (Turner and Partington 1991; Turner 1996; Lubs 1999; Neri and Opitz 2000; Spinath et al. 2004; Ropers and Hamel 2005; Arden and Plomin 2006; Plomin et al. 2006).”
BackgroundGiudice, M. D., & Gangestad, S. W. (2023) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-023-00358-z · Cited by 11
“Large studies of IQ scores found variance ratios of up to 1.20 in children (Arden & Plomin, 2006), and 1.13–1.19 in young adolescents (Johnson et al., 2008).”
InfluentialGender and the 2003 Quality Reform in higher education in Norway
Lehre, A., Hansen, A., & Laake, P. (2009) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-009-9211-3 · Cited by 10
“This is shown in IQ test scores where males show greater variance than females (Hedges and Nowell 1995; Deary et al. 2003; Nowell and Hedges 1998; Arden and Plomin 2006 ).”
BackgroundSex-Specific Developmental Scales for Surveillance
Sudry, T., Amit, G., Zimmerman, D. R., Tsadok, M. A., Baruch, R., Yardeni, H., Akiva, P., Moshe, D. B., Bachmat, E., & Sadaka, Y. (2024) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2023-062483 · Cited by 7
Automatic Bayes Factors for Testing Equality- and Inequality-Constrained Hypotheses on Variances
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Explaining cross-racial differences in the educational gender gap
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Gender differences in operational and cognitive abilities
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“While some studies suggested that possible advantages for girls in g may vary with age (Arden & Plomin, 2006), others failed to even detect any sex differences at all in children aged 3–7 years (Sellers, Burns, & Guyrke, 2002).”
BackgroundFactorial Invariance of the Anadolu Sak Intelligence Scale Across Gender
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“For example, Arden and Plomin (2006) reported that girls had higher scores in general intelligence than boys in their early years; the difference between boys and girls was insignificant at age 9, and boys surpassed girls at age 10.”
BackgroundHe, M. W., Wong, W., & Hui, A. N. N. (2015) · Creativity in the twenty first century · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-636-2_6 · Cited by 7
An Evolutionary Theory for the Variability HypothesisPreprint
Hill, T. P. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1703.04184 · Cited by 9
Best Practices for Leveraging PISA CT Data to Understand Gender Differences in Creative Thinking
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Alves, J. M., ANGELO, B. C., Zink, J., Chow, T., Yunker, A. G., Clark, K. A., LUO, S. H., Belcher, B. R., Herting, M. M., Dieli-Conwright, C. M., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-021-00794-6 · Cited by 6
Automatic Bayes factors for testing variances of two independent normal distributions
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The Cognitive Underpinnings of Creativity in Teams
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Recurring Errors in Studies of Gender Differences in Variability
Hill, T. P., & Arden, R. (2023) · Stats · doi:10.3390/stats6020033 · Cited by 6
“For example, Arden and Plomin [5] addressed questions about the over- and under-representation of boys and girls at the low and high extremes of measures of cognitive abilities by studying sex differences in the variance of test scores across childhood.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSalomonsen, T., & Reikerås, E. K. L. (2019) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2019.1651952 · Cited by 6
“Boys have slower maturation than girls (Arden and Plomin 2006; Geary 2010) and heightened vulnerability to medical problems and developmental difficulties (Geary 2010).”
BackgroundSex differences in variability: Evidence from math and reading assessment in Italy
Esposito, L., Giofrè, D., Toffalini, E., & Geary, D. C. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113410 · Cited by 5
The disjunction between evolutionary psychology and sex-discrimination law and policy
Browne, K. R. (2023) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.01.010 · Cited by 7
Helland-Riise, F., Norrøne, T. N., & Andersson, B. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12090082 · Cited by 5
“Males have been shown to express greater general variability than females in mental ability tests (Arden and Plomin 2006; Deary et al. 2003).”
BackgroundLehre, A., Hansen, A., Lehre, K. P., & Laake, P. (2012) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2012.732602 · Cited by 3
“This is in agreement with the notion that social forces are a more plausible source of mean differences than variance differences (Arden & Plomin, 2006).”
ResultSchweizer, F., Arx, P. H.-V., Ledermann, T., & Grob, A. (2018) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924/a000207 · Cited by 2
Correlates of Resilience Among American Indians in a Northwestern US State
Bradway, B. M. (2011) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 2
Giudice, M. D., & Gangestad, S. W. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/6ua8r · Cited by 2
Sex differences in brain–behavior relationships in the first 2 years of life
Fenske, S. J., Liu, J., Chen, H., Diniz, M. A., Stephens, R. L., Cornea, E. A., Gilmore, J. H., & Gao, W. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf133 · Cited by 2
Ojala, M. (2020) · University of Helsinki eBooks · doi:10.31885/9789515157782 · Cited by 13
The Early Prelinguistic Skills in Iranian Infants and Toddlers
Bayat, N., Ashtari, A., & Vahedi, M. (2021) · Iranian Rehabilitation Journal · doi:10.32598/irj.19.4.1605.1 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Arden, R., & Plomin, R.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Arden, Rosalind
- Venue
- Personality and Individual Differences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-07
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 39-48
- ISSN
- 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2016958833
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 7.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- sex differences, intelligence, variance, childhood, general intelligence, verbal ability, nonverbal ability, developmental differences, early childhood, educational impact, British children
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