Women's underrepresentation in science: sociocultural and biological considerations
Abstract
The underrepresentation of women at the top of math-intensive fields is controversial, with competing claims of biological and sociocultural causation. The authors develop a framework to delineate possible causal pathways and evaluate evidence for each. Biological evidence is contradictory and inconclusive. Although cross-cultural and cross-cohort differences suggest a powerful effect of sociocultural context, evidence for specific factors is inconsistent and contradictory. Factors unique to underrepresentation in math-intensive fields include the following: (a) Math-proficient women disproportionately prefer careers in non-math-intensive fields and are more likely to leave math-intensive careers as they advance; (b) more men than women score in the extreme math-proficient range on gatekeeper tests, such as the SAT Mathematics and the Graduate Record Examinations Quantitative Reasoning sections; (c) women with high math competence are disproportionately more likely to have high verbal competence, allowing greater choice of professions; and (d) in some math-intensive fields, women with children are penalized in promotion rates. The evidence indicates that women's preferences, potentially representing both free and constrained choices, constitute the most powerful explanatory factor; a secondary factor is performance on gatekeeper tests, most likely resulting from sociocultural rather than biological causes.
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The gender gap in mathematics performance often does not appear until early adolescence and only in some exams.
“The gender gap in mathematics performance often does not appear until early adolescence and only in some exams (Ceci et al., 2009).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Ceci et al., 2009
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- Authors
- Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 135
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 218-261
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2112657826
- Cited by
- 957
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 119 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 73 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 46
- FWCI
- 119.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Diversity and Inequality
- Keywords
- women in science, underrepresentation of women, career choice, career attrition, verbal ability, motherhood penalty, promotion rates, sociocultural factors, biological factors, causal pathways
- MeSH terms
- Workforce, Adult, Aptitude, Brain, Career Choice, Child, Child Rearing, Engineering, Female, Humans, Life Style, Mathematics, Prejudice, Science, Sex Characteristics, Social Values, Technology, Women
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