Communal sanitation alternatives for slums: A case study of Kibera, Kenya
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Biogas latrines' initial cost and operational skill requirements are beyond household level applications.
“Their initial cost and operational skill requirements are beyond household level applications.”
From Are pit latrines in urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances (2015) · cites this paper as [9]
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Thinking through heterogeneous infrastructure configurations
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“…of existing power relations, networked services have also inspired new forms of collective organising and self-built systems that offer various alternatives to formal, networked infrastructure pursued in the absence of large-scale state and market investment (Schouten and Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundSustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums
Katukiza, A. Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C. B., Foppen, J. W. A., Kansiime, F., & Lens, P. N. L. (2012) · Biotechnology Advances · doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.007 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
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“Biogas latrines have been installed as communal/public facilities in some areas of SSA [9, 10].”
BackgroundSanitation facilities in Kampala slums, Uganda: users' satisfaction and determinant factors
Tumwebaze, I. K., Orach, C. G., Niwagaba, C., Luthi, C., & Mosler, H.-J. (2013) · International Journal of Environmental Health Research · doi:10.1080/09603123.2012.713095 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“In a study conducted in Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya, the authors contend that it is not feasible to provide individual sanitation facilities in high-density slums with high poverty levels (Schouten and Mathenge 2010 ).”
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“Evidence from 5 studies suggest that it is important that there is a local or national legislation (Bruck & Dinku, 2008; Kiwanuka et al., 2015) and that there is no laxity in law implementation (Jimenez et al., 2014; Malebo et al., 2012; Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialChallenges to Achieving Sustainable Sanitation in Informal Settlements of Kigali, Rwanda
Tsinda, A., Abbott, P., Pedley, S., Charles, K., Adogo, J. M., Okurut, K., & Chenoweth, J. (2013) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph10126939 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“In sub-Saharan Africa, less than half of the population has access to a sanitation facility that meets the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) definition of improved [5,6].”
BackgroundResultConstructing the ecological sanitation: a review on technology and methods
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“A similar facility was built for excreta and food residues treatment of a restaurant in Kibera slum, Kenya (Schouten and Mathenge, 2010), and the biogas was used for cooking and heating water.”
MethodNo relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India.
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“Of these fuels, biodiesel and especially bioethanol have even been commercialized in some countries and are seen as reliable, abundant, easily accessible and economically feasible renewable energies (Alfa et al., 2014a,b; Schouten and Mathenge, 2010).”
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Feasibility study for biogas integration into waste treatment plants in Ghana
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“…also adds to the small body of literature that examines sanitation-related stress within an urban, high-density, informal settlement population [10 – 12 Our results align with findings from India [16], South Africa [17], Uganda [18], and Kenya [19] that unimproved sanitation options cause…”
ResultThe Social Network: How People with Visual Impairment use Mobile Phones in Kibera, Kenya
Barbareschi, G., Holloway, C., Arnold, K. L., Magomere, G. N., Wetende, W. A., Ngare, G., & Olenja, J. M. (2020) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376658 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
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“Despite the limitations of shared sanitation, consensus is growing that shared toilets are the only viable sanitation option for urban slums [8, 11, 12].”
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“Finally, sense of safety and privacy or the lack thereof have been identified as particularly important factors associated with women’s ability and willingness to access and utilize different sanitation alternatives, particularly during times of pregnancy or menstruation (Jenkins and Scott 2007; Pearson and Mcphedran…”
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Sanitation markets in urban informal settlements of East Africa
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“…more toilets, water points, and sewerage systems but also to make sure these infrastructures fit with the practices, concerns, and capacities of their users (Black & Fawcett, 2008; Isunju, Schwartz, Schouten, Johnson, & van Dijk, 2011; Schouten & Mathenge, 2010; Lenton, Wright & Lewis, 2005).”
BackgroundHuman right to sanitation in the legal and non‐legal literature: the need for greater synergy
Obani, P. C., & Gupta, J. (2016) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1162 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Financing of sanitation services in the slums of Kampala and Dar es Salaam
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“Many subsidized latrines in slum areas operate only for a short period of time before they are closed off because of poor operation and maintenance [27,28].”
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“Kibera in Nairobi, for instance, has had a number of interventions of communal sanitation facilities, with a study by Schouten and Mathenge [56] indicating that the residents preferred communal sanitation alternatives.”
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“including areas where settled water and mud persist [12], open sewage channels [13], toilets [4,14], and trash dumps.”
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“…that shared or public toilets (as opposed to individual household toilets) are the best option for densely populated urban slums because of space constraints (Schouten and Mathenge 2010; Katukiza et al. 2012), their cleanliness is an important factor to take into account and needs to be emphasized.”
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“Shared sanitation could be—given the available technology—the only viable option for improving sanitation in urban low-income settlements (Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
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The potential for scaling up container‐based sanitation in informal settlements in Kenya
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“With an urban population growth rate of 4%/year (World Bank, 2020), the provision of urban services including sanitation faces many challenges (Corburn & Hildebrand, 2015; Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
What has poverty got to do with it? Analysis of household access to improved sanitation in Ghana
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“These systems consist of shallow pits where human 12 excreta are deposited and the waste flows into the digester where anaerobic digestion takes place to produce biogas (Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundLebu, S., Sprouse, L., Akudago, J. A., Baldwin-SoRelle, C., Muoghalu, C., Anthonj, C., Evans, B., Brown, J., Bartram, J., & Manga, M. (2024) · npj Clean Water · doi:10.1038/s41545-024-00386-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Several studies reported key considerations for improving the quality of shared sanitation facilities and their management 23,31,34,47,48,51 – 60 .”
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“Though cleanliness is an important factor, shared or public toilets (as opposed to individual household toilets) are the best option for densely populated low-income urban areas due to space constraints (Schouten and Mathenge 2010; Katukiza et al. 2012) and lack of decisionmaking power by individual tenants who just r…”
BackgroundNo legitimacy: A study of private sector sanitation development in the Global South
Fischer, K., Kokko, S., & McConville, J. R. (2020) · Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions · doi:10.1016/j.eist.2020.11.006 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Kibera is one of the largest informal settlements in Africa with a likely population of over half a million residents (Schouten and Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundCrous, P. A., Haarhoff, J., & Buckley, C. A. (2013) · Water SA · doi:10.4314/wsa.v39i3.3 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Yet the most appropriate sanitation technology for an informal settlement must provide a socially and environmentally acceptable level of service with full health benefits, whilst being financially viable (Schouten and Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialGeyer, H. S., & van Lille, G. (2024) · Habitat International · doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2024.103042 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A practice approach to understanding the multilevel dynamics of sanitation innovation
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“…(as opposed to individual household toilets) are the best option for densely populated urban slums due to space constraints (Katukiza et al., 2012; Schouten & Mathenge, 2010), others have shown that shared sanitation may be a contributory factor to increased frequency of infections (Fenn et …”
BackgroundShared but Clean Household Toilets: What Makes This Possible? Evidence from Ghana and Kenya
Antwi-Agyei, P., Monney, I., Adjei, K. A., Kweyu, R. M., & Simiyu, S. N. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19074271 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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“Informal, that is, the illegal nature of the settlement, high-density housing, hilly landscape, and poor soil quality severely affect the sanitation situation (Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundTukahirwa, J. T. (2011) · doi:10.18174/180298 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…of the civil society organizations in the sanitation and solid waste management sector in all three cities, be it not to the same extent and in the same way (Ministry of Water and Environment, 2010; Schouten and Mathenge, 2010; ILO, 2007; Kassim, 2006; Karanja, 2005; Ikiara et al., 2004).”
BackgroundRiungu, J. N., Ronteltap, M., & van Lier, J. B. (2019) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2019.099 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mutai, P., Niwagaba, C. B., Jing, B., Kulabako, R. N., Katukiza, A. Y., Nyenje, P. M., & Kansiime, F. (2016) · African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.5897/ajest2016.2108 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Biogas latrine is one such technologies that can offer a sanitation solution in urban slums (Schouten and Mathenge, 2010) and has gained prominence in recent years (Bensah et al., 2010).”
BackgroundRedesigning the ventilated improved pit latrine for use in built-up low-income settings
Obeng, P. A., Oduro-Kwarteng, S., Keraita, B., Bregnhøj, H., Abaidoo, R. C., Awuah, E., & Konradsen, F. (2019) · Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2019.098 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Determinants of biogas toilet adoption in rural Burkina Faso
Lare, F., Sossou, S. K., & Konaté, Y. (2024) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-024-04481-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“These socio-cultural aspects include religion, culture, beliefs, household needs, and preferences (Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
Slum Improvement Lessons in Africa: Kibera
Lüthi, C. (2016) · The Geojournal library · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31794-6_11 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cardone, R., Schrecongost, A., & Gilsdorf, R. J. (2018) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/30296 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Obeng, P. A., Keraita, B., Oduro–Kwarteng, S., Bregnhøj, H., Abaidoo, R. C., & Konradsen, F. (2015) · Management of Environmental Quality An International Journal · doi:10.1108/meq-05-2014-0079 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Sprouse, L., Lebu, S., Nguyen, J., Muoghalu, C., Semiyaga, S., & Manga, M. (2025) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2025.107012 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Understanding the use of shared sanitation facilities in Delhi’s slums
Lee, Y. J. (2022) · Development in Practice · doi:10.1080/09614524.2022.2156479 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The cleanliness of shared facilities is often evaluated by the smell of the facility; therefore, pit latrines that often have the most odour are less likely to be used (Schouten and Mathenge 2010).”
BackgroundThe politics and policies of bioenergy advancement: a global perspective
Oladoye, P. O., Omotola, E. O., Alli, Y. A., Oladipo, M. E., Ejeromedoghene, O., & Bamisaye, A. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-14112-6.00015-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Riungu, J. N., Ronteltap, M., & van Lier, J. B. (2018) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2018.160 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Simiyu, S. N. (2020) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2020.1767014 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Several sanitation studies have been carried out in low-income settlements in Africa and Asia, each of them using various designs and data collection methods (Schouten and Mathenge 2010, Isunju et al. 2011, Heijnen et al. 2015, Alam et al. 2017, Tsinda et al. 2017).”
BackgroundSunarti, S., Helmi, M., Widjajanti, R., & Purwanto, A. A. (2020) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2020.159 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
ICONARP International Journal of Architecture and Planning
Planning, İ. A. A. (2013) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tirivanhu, P. (2020) · Development Southern Africa · doi:10.1080/0376835x.2020.1761295 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Decentralization and Resource Capacity for Sustainable Sanitation Services Delivery in Ghana
Mariwah, S. (2022) · Advances in African economic, social and political development · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-12378-8_11 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Empowering Kibera during political change: A case study through a Freirean lens
Gibson, N., Vertigans, S., & Mueller‐Hirth, N. (2021) · International Social Work · doi:10.1177/00208728211010215 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Previous research focussing on Kibera has highlighted the impact of politics on the population (De Smedt, 2009; Osborn, 2008), the impact of infrastructure (Desgroppes and Taupin, 2011; Mutisya and Yarime, 2011) and social problems experienced by the population (Gallaher et al., 2013; Schouten and Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodGokhale, V. A., Joshi, D., & Acharya, A. (2023) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2023.2242091 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Due to poor sanitation, several stressors concerning the physical and social environment surfaced, rendering respondents physically vulnerable and psychologically distressed (Schouten and Mathenge 2010, O’Reilly and Louis 2014, Nelson et al .”
BackgroundChinyama, A., & Toma, T. (2013) · Urban planning and design research · Cited by 4 · see citing works
An Environmental Plan for Lagos, Nigeria
Edelman, D. J. (2015) · International Journal of Social Science Research · doi:10.5296/ijssr.v3i1.7157 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Research conducted in Nairobi, Kenya concluded that communal sanitation facilities are a viable and appropriate alternative for sanitation in slum areas (Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundDomini, M., Pereira, S. G., Win, A., Win, L. Y. W. L. Y., & Lantagne, D. (2022) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.21-0526 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Challenges to Urban Housing Policies Implementation Efforts: The Case of Nairobi, Kenya
Agayi, C. O., & Karakayacı, Ö. (2020) · Iconarp International J of Architecture and Planning · doi:10.15320/iconarp.2020.144 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In Kibera, high population density, poverty, and inadequate provision of sanitation has led to the overusing of latrines, in some instances more than 200 people sharing a single latrine (Schouten & Mathenge, 2010).”
BackgroundRamlal, P. S., Lin, J., Buckley, C. A., Stenström, T. A., & Amoah, I. D. (2022) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2022.201 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Antimicrobial Resistance in Slums: A Call for Global Action
Egwu, K. C., Abdulkarim, M., Adebisi, Y. A., & Cariaga, M. F. N. M. (2025) · Public Health Challenges · doi:10.1002/puh2.70028 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Similarly, in Kenya, the prevalence of diarrhea was estimated to be 32% in the Kibera slums, compared to 13% in the country’s capital (Nairobi) [11].”
Mazvimavi, D., Nhapi, I., & Mulwafu, W. (2010) · Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Parts A/B/C · doi:10.1016/j.pce.2010.09.001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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“As a result infrastructure development lags behind the population growth especially in low-income areas [2].”
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Meaningful stakeholder involvement in decision making processes on sustainability issues
Hendriksen, A. (2019) · doi:10.18174/496901 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bibliometric and scoping study of research on urban deprived areas and slums
Henn, K., Leštáková, M., Logan, K., Hartig, J., Georganos, S., & Friesen, J. (2025) · Discover Cities · doi:10.1007/s44327-025-00115-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Review of User Vulnerabilities Associated with Shared Sanitation Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa
Obeng, P. A., Awere, E., Banafo, K. S., Obeng, P. A., Quaye, S. A., Pennellini, S., & Bònoli, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environment and Climate Change · doi:10.9734/ijecc/2022/v12i121538 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Schouten, M. A. C., & Mathenge, R. W.
- Affiliations
- IHE Delft Institute for Water Education (NL)
- Government of Kenya (KE)
- Corresponding author
- Schouten, M.A.C.
- Venue
- Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-01
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 13-14
- Pages
- 815-822
- ISSN
- 1474-7065 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2001425804
- Cited by
- 119
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 24.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Parts A/B/C (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban and Rural Development Challenges
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Studies and Social Issues
- Keywords
- slum sanitation, Kibera, stakeholder expectations, user expectations, non-governmental organizations
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