No relief: Lived experiences of inadequate sanitation access of poor urban women in India.
Open accessAbstract
The provision of sanitation in India has attracted much attention, but research and policies focusing on gender in relation to sanitation often fail to focus on sanitation-related violence against women (VAW). This article focuses on research in Pune (in Maharashtra) and Jaipur (in Rajasthan). It offers evidence of slum-dwelling women’s experiences of harassment and violence related to poor or absent sanitation facilities. In addition, it explores the strategies that women adopt to minimise risk and stress. Sanitation-related violence shows the connections between slum geographies and unequal intra-slum relationships of gender, caste, and economic and marital status, and the types of sanitation facilities available. These different identities shape women’s experiences of VAW and they commonly blame men from ‘outside’ or ‘other’ groups, affecting their ability to act as a united group against violence. While sanitation is inadequate and inappropriate for women’s needs across castes, community cohesion and the chances of collective action and advocacy to address sanitation needs are also compromised by tensions between groups in the slum.
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Family members (often husbands, fathers, and in-laws) restricted water fetching and sanitation-related movements, most intensely for unmarried daughters and recently married and pregnant women, less intensely for women of lower castes and widows.
“Research in India found that family members (often husbands, fathers, and in-laws) restricted water fetching and sanitation-related movements, most intensely for unmarried daughters [174,182,190] and recently married and pregnant women, [178, 182, 189] (less intensely for women of lower castes [135] and widows [174]).”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Movement restrictions influenced women and girls' access to water and defecation, urination, and menstrual management locations, and are most widely reported in India.
“Movement restrictions influenced women and girls' access to water [101, 110, 178] and defecation, urination, and menstrual management locations, and are most widely reported in India [62, 135, 174, 181, 182, 184, 187], [101,110,187,[189][190][191].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Families have built latrines specifically to restrict movement, though women do not always have access when needed if situated in spaces controlled by men.
“Families have built latrines specifically to restrict movement, [62,174] though women do not always have access when needed if situated in spaces controlled by men [62].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs; women openly defecating were particularly vulnerable to non-partner sexual violence compared to those using latrines.
“Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs (_((((xxx))))_)[70, 76, 108, 123, 135, 143, 153, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 184, 186-189, 191, 198, 214, 231, 233, 238-240, 255, 258, 259, 261, 265, 268-270] Research from India, [181, 268] Kenya, [269] and Nigeria [70] found women openly defecating were particularly”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
General and sexual harassment are more frequently observed/documented in sanitation than water research.
“General harassment, including taunting, teasing, name calling, and throwing things at women or girls is more frequently observed in sanitation [138, 168, 174, 175, 181, 187, 190, 263] than water research [168,199] Sexual harassment, including verbal harassment, peeping, flashing, and male masturbation is also more frequently documented in sanitation [171-174, 189, 190, 214, 217, 226, 231, 233]”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Fears or experiences of harm from domestic and wild animals and insects were reported for both water collection and sanitation activities; women and girls reported fear and actual experiences of injury at and when accessing sanitation locations, regardless of sanitation type.
“Fears or experiences of harm from domestic and wild animals and insects were reported for both water collection and sanitation activities [62, 135, 143, 170, 172-174, 177-179, 184, 187, 189-191, 198, 201, 214, 226, 229, 257, 258, 296].Women and girls reported fear and actual experiences of injury at and when accessing sanitation locations, regardless of sanitation type [135, 168, 172, 174, 184, 18”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Women who withheld food and water or suppressed urination and defecation when lacking access to safe, clean latrines reported experiencing urinary tract infections, headaches, stomach aches, constipation, diarrhea, and other illnesses.
“Women who withheld food and water or suppressed urination and defecation when lacking access to safe, clean latrines reported experiencing urinary tract infections, headaches, stomach aches, constipation, diarrhea, and other illnesses [135, 168, 172-174, 184, 190, 214, 248].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Water and sanitation improvements have freed up time for other income-generating activities; conversely, women's income generation has been constrained by poor water access, limited employment opportunities, or by WASH initiatives themselves.
“Finally, water and sanitation improvements have freed up time for other income-generating activities [56,67,105,174,194,210,295].Conversely, women's income generation has been constrained by poor water access, limited employment opportunities, or by WASH initiatives themselves.”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Limited income and asset access and control, including over land, constrained women's access to sanitation and limited independent decision-making about latrine construction; women reported using public pay-per-use toilets and incurring higher costs than men due to more frequent need.
“Similarly, limited income and asset access and control, including over land, constrained women's access to sanitation [119, 124, 125, 135, 147, 168, 171, 174, 186, 187, 191, 217, 239, 240, 270] and limited independent decision-making about latrine construction [119, 124, 135].Women reported using public pay-per-use toilets [168, 171, 174, 227, 239, 270] and incurring higher costs than men due to”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
Women frequently accompanied one another or asked men to accompany them for safety when open defecating.
“Regarding sanitation, women frequently accompanied one another or asked men to accompany them for safety when open defecating, [135, 173-175, 182, 187, 189, 251]”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [174]
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- Authors
- Kulkarni, S., O’Reilly, K., & Bhat, S.
- Affiliations
- Texas A&M University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kulkarni, Seema
- Venue
- Gender & Development
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2017-05-04
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 167-183
- ISSN
- 1355-2074 (ISSN-L)
- 1364-9221
- OpenAlex
- W2735016030
- Cited by
- 76
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 7.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Gender & Development (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Studies and Social Issues
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban and Rural Development Challenges
- Social Sciences › Education › Gender, Education, and Development Issues
- Keywords
- violence against women, urban poverty, gender inequality, caste, collective action, community cohesion, women's coping strategies, Pune, Jaipur
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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