Stress management versus cognitive restructuring in trauma-affected refugees—A pragmatic randomised study
Abstract
The aim of this randomised trial was to compare the effectiveness of stress management (SM) versus cognitive restructuring (CR) in trauma-affected refugees. The intention-to-treat sample comprised 126 refugees with PTSD (SM = 62, CR = 64). The treatment consisted of 16 sessions of psychotherapy with manualised SM or CR in addition to 10 sessions with a medical doctor (psychoeducation and pharmacological treatment). The primary outcome was PTSD symptom severity (Harvard Trauma Questionnaire). Secondary outcomes were symptoms of depression and anxiety (Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25, Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Ratings), quality of life (WHO-5), functioning (Global Assessment of Functioning, Sheehan Disability Scale), pain (Visual Analogue Scale) and somatisation (Symptom Checklist). There was no difference in the primary outcome between groups. A significant group difference was found on the Hamilton Anxiety Rating with the SM group improving more than the CR group (effect size 0.46) indicating that methods in SM could potentially be helpful in this population.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Throughout the studies the treatment has shown limited but similar effectiveness.
“Throughout the studies the treatment has shown limited but similar effectiveness.”
From Refugees versus persons family reunified to a refugee: A comparison of sociodemographic factors, trauma history, baseline psychopathology and treatment effectiveness (2023) · cites this paper as Carlsson et al., 2018
Cites
Eysenck, H. J. (1985) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(85)90087-7 · Cited by 32,026 · see citing works
“Stress: appraisal and coping,”
Folkman, S. (2013) · Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 · Cited by 27,833 · see citing works
The WHO-5 well-being index: A systematic review of the literature
Topp, C. W., Østergaard, S. D., Søndergaard, S., & Bech, P. (2015) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000376585 · Cited by 4,708 · see citing works
Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., Schroevers, M. J., & Somsen, G. A. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-008-9136-5 · Cited by 2,487 · see citing works
Boutron, I., Moher, D., Altman, D. G., Schulz, K. F., Ravaud, P., & for the CONSORT Group* (2008) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008 · Cited by 2,292 · see citing works
Steel, Z., Chey, T., Silove, D., Marnane, C., Bryant, R. A., & van Ommeren, M. (2009) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1132 · Cited by 2,246 · see citing works
A pragmatic–explanatory continuum indicator summary (PRECIS): a tool to help trial designers
Thorpe, K. E., Zwarenstein, M., Oxman, A. D., Treweek, S., Furberg, C. D., Altman, D. G., Tunis, S., Bergel, E., Harvey, I., Magid, D. J., et al. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2008.12.011 · Cited by 1,389 · see citing works
Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Bisson, J. I., & Andrew, M. M. (2005) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003388.pub2 · Cited by 652 · see citing works
Principles and Practice of Stress Management
Gauron, E. F. (1986) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.143.2.250-a · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Bisson, J., & Andrew, M. (2007) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003388.pub3 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Stein, D. J., Ipser, J. C., Seedat, S., Sager, C., & Amos, T. (2006) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd002795.pub2 · Cited by 519 · see citing works
The psychosocial impact of war trauma and torture on Southeast Asian refugees
Mollica, R. F., Wyshak, G., & Lavelle, J. (1987) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.144.12.1567 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Bech, P., Kastrup, M., & Rafaelsen, O. J. (1986) · PubMed · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Sheehan, K. H., & Sheehan, D. V. (2008) · International Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/yic.0b013e3282f2b4d6 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Carswell, K., Blackburn, P., & Barker, C. (2011) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764009105699 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Nosè, M., Ballette, F., Bighelli, I., Turrini, G., Purgato, M., Tol, W., Priebe, S., & Barbui, C. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171030 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Kleijn, W. C., Hovens, J. E., & Rodenburg, J. J. (2001) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.2001.88.2.527 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Crumlish, N., & O'Rourke, K. (2010) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181d61258 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
CBT for Vietnamese refugees with treatment‐resistant PTSD and panic attacks: A pilot study
Hinton, D. E., Pham, T., Tran, M., Safren, S. A., Otto, M. W., & Pollack, M. H. (2004) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/b:jots.0000048956.03529.fa · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Hetrick, S. E., Purcell, R., Garner, B., & Parslow, R. (2010) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007316.pub2 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Meichenbaum, D. H. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315748931-10 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Teodorescu, D., Heir, T., Hauff, E., Wentzel‐Larsen, T., & Lien, L. (2012) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2012.00954.x · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Stenmark, H. I., Catani, C., Neuner, F., Elbert, T. R., & Holen, A. (2013) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2013.07.002 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Hensel-Dittmann, D., Schauer, M., Ruf, M., Catani, C., Odenwald, M. G., Elbert, T. R., & Neuner, F. (2011) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000327253 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Measuring torture and torture-related symptoms.
Mollica, R. F., & Caspi-Yavin, Y. (1991) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.3.4.581 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Palić, S., Zerach, G., Shevlin, M. E., Zeligman, Z., Elklit, A., & Solomon, Z. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.062 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Buhmann, C. B., Nordentoft, M., Ekstroem, M., Carlsson, J., & Mortensen, E. L. (2016) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.150961 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationter Heide, F. J. J., Mooren, T. T. M., van de Schoot, R., de Jongh, A., & Kleber, R. J. (2016) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.115.167775 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Carlsson, J., Sonne, C., & Silove, D. (2014) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000000175 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychosocial predictors of treatment outcome for trauma-affected refugees
Sonne, C., Carlsson, J., Bech, P., Vindbjerg, E., Mortensen, E. L., & Elklit, A. (2016) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v7.30907 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationSonne, C., Carlsson, J., Bech, P., Elklit, A., & Mortensen, E. L. (2016) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1081-5 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationConcurrent Validity of the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale for Clients with Schizophrenia
Schwartz, R. C. (2007) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.100.2.571-574 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Psychotherapy with traumatised refugees – the design of a randomised clinical trial
Vindbjerg, E., Klimpke, C., & Carlsson, J. M. (2018) · Torture Journal · doi:10.7146/torture.v24i1.109719 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationEkstrøm, M., Sonne, C., Carlsson, J. M., Bech, P., & Elklit, A. (2016) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.01.1438 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 35 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Coventry, P. A., Meader, N., Melton, H., Temple, M., Dale, H., Wright, K., Cloitre, M., Karatzias, T., Bisson, J., Roberts, N. P., et al. (2020) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003262 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Bhattacharya, S., Goicoechea, C., Heshmati, S., Carpenter, J. K., & Hofmann, S. G. (2023) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-022-01402-8 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Kip, A., Priebe, S., Holling, H., & Nexhmedin Morina, B. (2020) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2446 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Nordbrandt, M. S., Sonne, C., Mortensen, E. L., & Carlsson, J. M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230300 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationA network meta-analysis of psychosocial interventions for refugees and asylum seekers with PTSD
Turrini, G., Tedeschi, F., Cuijpers, P. J., Giovane, C. D., Kip, A., Nexhmedin Morina, B., Nosè, M., Ostuzzi, G., Purgato, M., Ricciardi, C., et al. (2021) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-005029 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Aizik-Reebs, A., Yuval, K., Hadash, Y., Gebremariam, S. G., & Bernstein, A. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702621998641 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Interpreter-mediated psychotherapy with trauma-affected refugees – A retrospective cohort study
Sander, R., Laugesen, H., Skammeritz, S., Mortensen, E. L., & Carlsson, J. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.058 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationGruner, D., Magwood, O., Bair, L., Duff, L., Adel, S., & Pottie, K. C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17134618 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Predictors of treatment outcomes for trauma-affected refugees - results from two randomised trials
Sonne, C., Mortensen, E. L., Silove, D., Palic, S., & Carlsson, J. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.095 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationBonfils, K. A., Tennity, C. L., Congedo, B. A., Dolowich, B. A., Hammer, L. A., & Haas, G. L. (2022) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2022.102576 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Hofmann, S. G., Kasch, C., & Reis, A. (2025) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2025.102553 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Sandahl, H., Baandrup, L., Vindbjerg, E., Jennum, P., & Carlsson, J. M. (2021) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-021-01266-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationSolberg, Ø., Sengoelge, M., Nissen, A., & Saboonchi, F. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18031004 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Lindberg, L. G., Mundy, S. S., Kristiansen, M., Johansen, K. S., & Carlsson, J. M. (2019) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckz090 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationRathke, H., Poulsen, S., Carlsson, J. M., & Palić, S. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112898 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationTurrini, G., Purgato, M., Cadorin, C., Bartucz, M. B., Cristofalo, D., Gastaldon, C., Nosè, M., Ostuzzi, G., Papola, D., Prina, E., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2024.101152 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Sambucini, D., Aceto, P., Begotaraj, E., & Lai, C. (2020) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-020-01055-w · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Non-Trauma-Focused Psychotherapies for the Treatment of PTSD: a Descriptive Review
Shea, M. T., KRUPNICK, J. L., Belsher, B. E., & Schnurr, P. P. (2020) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-020-00214-y · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Skammeritz, S., Lindberg, L. G., Mortensen, E. L., Nørredam, M. L., & Carlsson, J. M. (2020) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1363461520935673 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationGryesten, J. R., Brodersen, K. J., Lindberg, L. G., Carlsson, J. M., & Poulsen, S. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01345-y · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationLara‐Cabrera, M. L., Bjørkly, S., De las Cuevas, C., Pedersen, S. A., & Mundal, I. P. (2020) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.14445 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Bruhn, M., Attardo, H. L., Kromann-Larsen, M., Trevino, C. S., Eplov, L. F., Hjorthøj, C. R., & Carlsson, J. M. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06774-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationVindbjerg, E., Sandahl, H., Mortensen, E. L., Roberts, N. P., & Carlsson, J. M. (2023) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13592 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychotherapy readiness domains as predictors of psychotherapy outcome in trauma-affected refugees
Bernardsdóttir, B., Sandahl, H., Carlsson, J. M., Mortensen, E. L., & Palić, S. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.130 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationHeadache comorbidity in refugees and migrants with post-traumatic stress disorder
Westergaard, M. L., Jensen, R., & Carlsson, J. M. (2023) · Cephalalgia · doi:10.1177/03331024221147502 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citation“Count the Days by the Good Outcomes”: Family Farm Member Experiences with Stress and Coping
Paskewitz, E. A., Miller, L. E., & Bertram, V. (2023) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510974.2023.2218893 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
O'Donnell, M. L., Arjmand, H., Lumley, M. A., Seal, K. H., Mani, R., Sterling, M. M., Reed, D. E., Sbisa, A. M., Bair, M. J., Bown, S., et al. (2025) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003880 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Thøgersen, M. H., Bager, L., Bangsgaard, S. G., Palić, S., Auning-Hansen, M. A., Møller, S. B., Larsen, K. B., Tækker, L., Jensen, B. S., Bothe, S. K., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20166611 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Barhoma, M., Sonne, C., Lommen, M. J. J., Mortensen, E. L., & Carlsson, J. M. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.007 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationLange, A. B., Mortensen, E. L., Palic, S., Sonne, C. K., & Carlsson, J. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100586 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationRosenbloom, B. N., Curtis, K., Williams, C. M., Slepian, P. M., McCarthy, M., Flynn, M. J., Nella, A., Kim, A., Siegal, R., Englesakis, M. F., et al. (2026) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003967 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Çıtlak, G. (2020) · Turkish Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery · doi:10.14744/tjtes.2020.44902 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Aizik-Reebs, A., Yuval, K., Hadash, Y., Gebremariam, S. G., & Bernstein, A. (2020) · doi:10.31231/osf.io/jyhwa · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bruhn, M., Skammeritz, S., Lindberg, L. G., Nørredam, M. L., Mortensen, E. L., & Carlsson, J. M. (2025) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13634615241296318 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationFeasibility of an interpreter-mediated neuropsychological test battery for trauma-affected refugees
Bothe, S. K., Nielsen, T. R., Nordin, L., Palić, S., & Thøgersen, M. H. (2025) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2025.2504841 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Protecting vulnerable populations: COVID-19 pandemic, mental health, and refugees and asylees
Mincin, J., Khetarpal, R. M., & Steiner, J. J. (2022) · Journal of Emergency Management · doi:10.5055/jem.0703 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vindbjerg, E., Sandahl, H., Lindberg, L. G., Attardo, H. L., Mortensen, E. L., & Carlsson, J. M. (2024) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.3060 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationL'efficacia degli interventi psicologici sulla depressione, ansia e somatizzazione nei migranti
Begotaraj, E., Paola, C. D., Sambucini, D., Ciacchella, C., Caroppo, E., & Lai, C. (2020) · RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.3280/rip2020-001012 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bruhn, M., Attardo, H. L., Kromann-Larsen, M., Trevino, C. S., Eplov, L. F., Hjorthøj, C. R., & Carlsson, J. M. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2035017/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationExploring The Feasibility of Neurofeedback for Trauma-Affected Refugees – A Qualitative StudyPreprint
Hannemose, S. Z., Attardo, H. L., Vindbjerg, E., & Carlsson, J. M. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-953707/v1
Self-citationRadiografía de una obra inédita de Abû Ya'far al-Gâfiqi
Galán, I. G. (1997) · Revista del Instituto Egipcio de Estudios Islámicos en Madrid/Revista del Instituto Egipcio de Estudios Islámicos en Madrid
Duran, M. B., Kızılkan, Y., Yıkılmaz, T. N., Demiray, M., Yavuz, A., AKCİN, S., & Toksöz, S. (2022) · Hitit Medical Journal · doi:10.52827/hititmedj.1132890
Psychological Interventions for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Adults
Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34078-9_7
Masaki, C. Ø., Vindbjerg, E., Mortensen, E. L., Bruhn, M., & Carlsson, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.09.011
Self-citationIntegrative approaches to studying sleep, stress, and related disorders
Neylan, T. C., Poe, G. R., & Risbrough, V. B. (2024) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2024.100700
Stabilization interventions in the treatment of traumatized refugees: A scoping review
Rzepka, I., Gebhardt, N., Nowak, J., Bruns, B., Friederich, H., & Nikendei, C. (2025) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2025.10028 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Carlsson, J. M., Bruhn, M., Poschmann, I. S., Silove, D. M., Westergaard, M. L., Mortensen, E. L., & Sandahl, H. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0324935
Self-citationBruhn, M., Attardo, H. L., Kromann-Larsen, M., Trevino, C. S., Eplov, L., Hjorthøj, C., & Carlsson, J. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21303231
Self-citationBruhn, M., Attardo, H. L., Kromann-Larsen, M., Trevino, C. S., Eplov, L. F., Hjorthøj, C., & Carlsson, J. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21303234
Self-citationMuth, A. J., Clauss, K. E., Cheney, T. P., & O'Neil, M. E. (2026) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2026.2658094
Ethical Considerations in Islāmic Psychotherapy with Vulnerable Clients
Rassool, G. H. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-26515-9_9
Ni, N., Osati, Z., Zaremohzzabieh, Z., Ahrari, S., & Abdullah, H. B. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839849
- Authors
- Carlsson, J., Sonne, C., Vindbjerg, E., & Mortensen, E. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- Mental Health Services (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Carlsson, Jessica
- Venue
- Psychiatry Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 266
- Pages
- 116-123
- ISSN
- 0165-1781 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2804070267
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 6.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychiatry Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- TrygFonden
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- stress management, cognitive restructuring, post-traumatic stress disorder, refugees, trauma, psychotherapy, psychoeducation, pharmacotherapy, anxiety, depression, quality of life, functioning, pain, somatization
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Counseling, Denmark, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychotherapy, Quality of Life, Surveys and Questionnaires, Refugees, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Disease Management
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review