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Cited by 6COVID-19 and Mental HealthOccupational Health and BurnoutHealthcare professionals’ stress and burnout

Síntomas depresivos en trabajadores de la salud dos años después del inicio de la pandemia COVID-19 en Bogotá, Colombia

Open access
Noguera Novoa, Cindy N., Sarmiento-Melendez, Yorcelis T., Sierra-Hincapié, Gloria M., González-Díaz, Jairo M.·2025·Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría
DOI 10.1016/j.rcp.2023.04.006PMC PMC10103618
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Abstract

Introduction During the COVID-19 pandemic, different events arose worldwide, including the impact on the mental health of health personnel. Our main aim was to determine the association between sociodemographic, clinical, tobacco and alcohol abuse, and fear of COVID-19 variables with the presence of depressive symptoms in a healthcare facility, in Bogotá DC, in 2022.Materials and methods Analytical cross-sectional study. Sociodemographic and clinical variables, alcohol and tobacco abuse, and fear of COVID-19 were explored. The presence and severity of depressive symptoms were evaluated with the PHQ-9 scale. Descriptive analysis and chi-square tests were performed. Statistically significant variables (P < .05) were entered into a logistic regression model with depressive symptoms as the dependent variable.Results 597 people were included, 80% female. The median age was 34 years (Interquartile Range [IQR]: 28-41. The prevalence of depressive symptoms was 12.4% (95% CI: 9,74-15,05). The multivariate analysis showed that fear of COVID-19, tobacco use, age under 28, and middle socioeconomic status were the factors that best explained the presence of depressive symptoms.Conclusions Two years after COVID-19 was declared a pandemic, the prevalence of depressive symptoms is 12.4%. It is necessary to carry out strategies to promote mental health in health professionals.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a cross-sectional survey of 597 health workers at a Bogotá IPS two years into the COVID-19 pandemic, 12.4% screened positive for clinically significant depressive symptoms on the PHQ-9. Fear of COVID-19, smoking, being under 28 years old, and middle socioeconomic status were the factors most strongly associated in multivariable analysis.

Key findings

  • The prevalence of clinically significant depressive symptoms was 12.4% (95% CI 9.74–15.05) using a PHQ-9 cutoff of 10; 78.6% reported at least some depressive symptom and 1.7% had severe symptoms.
  • By profession, 16% of physicians, 11.4% of nursing assistants, and 5.8% of head nurses screened positive; by sex, 12.5% of women and 11.9% of men screened positive.
  • In the multivariable model, the main explanatory factors were fear of COVID-19, tobacco use, age under 28, and middle socioeconomic stratum, followed by another medical diagnosis, working more hours during the pandemic, and working in outpatient care.
  • Bivariate associations included age under 28 or over 41, socioeconomic stratum, profession, outpatient work, tobacco use, perceived increased workload, other disease history, prior COVID-19, prior mental health consultation, and fear of COVID-19.

Methods

  • Observational analytical cross-sectional study at one Bogotá IPS; non-probabilistic sample of 633 physicians, nursing assistants, and nursing chiefs in outpatient, hospitalization, and emergency services, with 36 excluded for an explicit mental illness diagnosis, leaving 597 participants. Data were collected from January 26 to April 7, 2022, via WhatsApp and Google Forms.
  • An ad hoc questionnaire covered sociodemographic, clinical, tobacco, and alcohol variables; depressive symptoms were measured with the PHQ-9, and fear of COVID-19 with the FCV-19S using a median-based cutoff.
  • Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and logistic regression were used for variables significant at p < 0.05; odds ratios were converted to adjusted prevalence ratios using the Miettinen formula.

Limitations

  • The authors state that the cross-sectional design means symptom perception and presence could change over time, that the sample size was relatively small and may affect statistical power, and that using one institution with non-probabilistic sampling limits generalizability.
  • Evident from the text: the study relied on self-administered online instruments and screening scales rather than diagnostic interviews, which may introduce self-report and selection bias; the sample was predominantly women and drawn from a single IPS, so subgroup estimates may be imprecise.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.rcp.2023.04.006

Cites

27 of 27 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 15 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In adjusted analysis, people over 41 years had 0.16 times more risk of depressive symptoms than those aged 29-40 (95% CI 0.65-2.05).

    “los mayores de 41 años presentaron un riesgo 0,16 veces mayor que las personas entre 29 y 40 años (IC 95%: 0,65-2,05)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In bivariate analysis, depressive symptoms were statistically associated with profession (p = 0.03).

    “la profesión (p = 0,03)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In adjusted analysis, people under 28 years had 1.02 times more risk of depressive symptoms than those aged 29-40 (95% CI 1.24-3.30).

    “las personas menores de 28 años presentaron 1,02 veces más riesgo de tener síntomas depresivos que las personas entre 29 y 40 años (IC 95%: 1,24-3,30)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In adjusted analysis, people with previous mental health consultation had 2.39 times the event compared with those without this history (95% CI 1.12-5.10).

    “Las personas con valoración previa por salud mental mostraron 2,39 veces el evento en comparación con las que no tienen este antecedente (IC 95%: 1,12-5,10)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In adjusted analysis, health professionals in outpatient care had 1.82 times more risk of depressive symptoms compared with those not working in that area (95% CI 1.11-2.97).

    “los profesionales de salud de consulta externa presentaron 1,82 veces más riesgo de síntomas depresivos en comparación con los que no trabajan en esta área (IC 95%: 1,11-2,97).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 19
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In adjusted analysis, nursing assistants had 0.96 times more probability of depressive symptoms compared with head nurses, but this difference was not statistically significant (95% CI 0.79-4.88).

    “los auxiliares de enfermería presentaron 0,96 veces más probabilidad de presentar síntomas depresivos al compararse con los jefes de enfermería, aunque esta diferencia no es estadísticamente significativa (IC 95%: 0,79-4,88).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In adjusted analysis, those in high socioeconomic stratum (strata 5 and 6) had 0.72 times more risk of depressive symptoms compared with low stratum, but this difference was not statistically significant (95% CI 0.61-4.84).

    “los de estrato socioeconómico alto (estratos 5 y 6) presentan 0,72 veces más riesgo de síntomas depresivos en comparación con el estrato socioeconómico bajo, aunque esta diferencia no es estadísticamente significativa (IC 95%: 0,61-4,84).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Depressive symptoms were present in 12.5% of women and 11.9% of men.

    “el 12,5% (n = 60) del total de las mujeres encuestadas y el 11,9% (n = 14) del total de los hombres presentan síntomas depresivos.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Depressive symptoms were present in 16% of physicians, 11.4% of nursing assistants, and 5.8% of head nurses.

    “el 16% de los médicos presentan síntomas depresivos, seguido de auxiliares de enfermería, con el 11,4%, y enfermeros jefes, con el 5,8%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Among the health workers, 78.6% had at least one depressive symptom and 1.7% had severe depressive symptoms.

    “el 78,6% del personal de salud a estudio presenta algún síntoma depresivo, y el 1,7%, síntomas depresivos graves.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The logistic regression model had no multicollinearity (VIF < 2), independent variables (Durbin-Watson = 2.063), adequate goodness of fit (Hosmer-Lemeshow p = 0.174), and explained 17.7% of the variance of the dependent variable (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.177).

    “Las variables incluidas en el modelo de regresión logística no son multilineales (VIF < 2) y son independientes entre sí (Durbin-Watson = 2,063). Asimismo, el modelo propuesto cuenta con una adecuada bondad de ajuste según la prueba de Hosmer-Lemeshow (p = 0,174) y explica el 17,7% de la varianza de la variable dependiente (R2 de Nagelkerke = 0,177).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample size was relatively small, which could affect the power of the statistical analyses.

    “el tamaño de la muestra es relativamente pequeño, lo cual afectaría el poder de los análisis estadísticos.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study was conducted in a single institution in Bogotá and used non-probabilistic sampling, which limits the generalizability of the results.

    “esta investigación se realizó en una única institución en Bogotá y el método de muestreo empleado no fue probabilístico, limitando la generalización de los resultados.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The PHQ-9 is a valid instrument for assessing the presence and severity of depressive symptoms, with a sensitivity of 88%, specificity of 85%, high reliability (Cronbach's alpha 0.86-0.89, test-retest reliability 0.84), and prior validation in a Colombian population.

    “se administró la escala PHQ-9, una herramienta válida que evalúa la presencia y la severidad de los síntomas depresivos14. Tiene la ventaja de ser breve, de dominio público, de fácil aplicación, puntuación e interpretación15, y cuenta con una sensibilidad del 88%, una especificidad del 85% y una elevada fiabilidad (α de Cronbach = 0,86-0,89, fiabilidad test-retest = 0,84)14. Este instrumento const”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A systematic review sponsored by Lancet found a 27.6% increase in major depressive disorder globally and a 34.8% increase in Latin America due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

    “la revisión sistemática patrocinada por Lancet para determinar la prevalencia de trastorno depresivo y ansiedad en 2020 debido a la pandemia por COVID-19, arrojó un incremento del trastorno depresivo mayor del 27,6% a nivel mundial, y a nivel de América Latina, un incremento porcentual del 34,8%”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Briciu et al. found a 63.1% prevalence of depression in health personnel in a Romanian hospital two years after the pandemic, using the PHQ-9 scale.

    “el estudio realizado por Briciu et al.29 en un hospital rumano, dos años después de la pandemia, donde se encontró una prevalencia del 63,1% de depresión en el personal sanitario utilizando la escala PHQ-9.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Study design and conductreasoning

    The minimum sample size was calculated as 629 participants, using a 95% confidence level, an expected prevalence of 40%, a precision of 3%, and a finite universe.

    “Para el cálculo del tamaño muestral mínimo se tuvo en cuenta un nivel de confianza del 95%, una prevalencia esperada de 0,4 (40%) y una precisión del 3%, por lo que, considerando un universo finito, el tamaño muestral mínimo fue de 629 participantes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although tobacco use was a risk factor for developing depressive symptoms, a direct causal relationship cannot be established.

    “Aunque el consumo de tabaco también fue un factor de riesgo para desarrollar síntomas depresivos, no es posible establecer una relación causal directa.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Having preexisting diseases, together with fear of COVID-19, is considered a risk factor for complications or severity of COVID-19, which in turn would increase the risk of depressive symptoms.

    “Tener enfermedades preexistentes, sumado con el miedo a la COVID-19, es considerado como factor de riesgo para complicaciones o severidad de la enfermedad por COVID-1921, lo cual traería consigo a su vez mayor riesgo de presentar síntomas depresivos22.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The mental health research group of CES University reported in July 2020 a prevalence of 33.3% anxiety disorders, 23.6% depression, and 11.6% sleep disorders, with physicians being the most affected group.

    “El grupo de investigación de salud mental de la universidad CES reportó en julio de 2020 una prevalencia del 33,3% de trastornos de ansiedad, del 23,6% de depresión y del 11,6% de trastornos del sueño, siendo los médicos el grupo más afectado24.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24]

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The difference in prevalence compared with previous studies could be explained by data collection two years after the pandemic start and during a plateau of the disease: report 265 for March 30, 2022, in Colombia reported 4,435 active cases with a weekly relative decrease of −16.1%.

    “esta diferencia, en comparación con otros estudios previos, podría explicarse por la recolección de los datos dos años después del inicio de la pandemia y en un momento de meseta de la enfermedad: según el Informe de Reporte de Situación 265 de COVID-19 para el 30 de marzo de 2022 en Colombia se reportaron 4.435 casos activos, con una disminución relativa semanal del −16,1%26.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Younger age may be related to a greater predisposition to depressive symptoms, possibly due to less experience and less preparation to handle stressful situations.

    “una edad más joven se relaciona con mayor predisposición para presentar síntomas depresivos, lo cual podría estar relacionado con menor experiencia y menor preparación para sobrellevar situaciones estresantes20.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20]

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) has reliable and valid psychometric properties for assessing fear of COVID-19 in the general population (Cronbach's alpha 0.82, intraclass correlation 0.72) and has been used in several Latin American countries.

    “Cuenta con propiedades psicométricas confiables y válidas para evaluar el miedo a la COVID-19 en la población general (alfa de Cronbach = 0,82 y correlación intraclase = 0,72). Ha sido utilizada en otros países de la región, como Argentina, Brasil, México, Perú y República Dominicana17.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A study conducted in 2020 in Wuhan, China, found that one in two people had anxiety and depression, with frontline health personnel most affected.

    “un estudio realizado en 2020 en Wuhan (China) encontró que una de cada dos personas presentaba ansiedad y depresión, siendo el personal de salud de primera línea el más afectado27.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Working more during the pandemic was related to depressive symptoms, which could be explained by greater workload, increased number of sick patients, collapse of health services, and lower feelings of satisfaction.

    “trabajar más durante la pandemia fue una variable que se relacionó con la presencia de síntomas depresivos, que podría explicarse por la mayor carga laboral, el incremento del número de enfermos, el colapso de los servicios de salud y un menor sentimiento de satisfacción23.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because the study was cross-sectional, the perception and presence of depressive symptoms could have changed over time.

    “Al ser un estudio de tipo transversal, la percepción y la presencia de síntomas depresivos pudieron cambiar en el tiempo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bedoya et al. found at the end of 2020 a prevalence of 15.2% anxiety and 18.3% depression in health personnel in Antioquia, symptoms particularly associated with age, change of housing to avoid exposing relatives, and a history of depressive and anxious disorder.

    “Bedoya et al.25 encontraron a finales del año 2020 una prevalencia de ansiedad del 15,2% y de depresión del 18,3% en personal de la salud en Antioquia, síntomas que estaban particularmente asociados con la edad, el cambio de vivienda para no exponer a familiares y el antecedente de trastorno depresivo y ansioso.”
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22 of 22

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In Spain, a high percentage of healthcare professionals experienced symptoms of anxiety, stress, depression, and sleep disorders; the prevalence of anxiety, depression, and stress was higher than that reported in previous studies on COVID-19.

    “In Spain, data revealed a high percentage of healthcare professionals experiencing symptoms of anxiety, stress, depression, and sleep disorders. The prevalence of anxiety, depression, and stress was higher than that reported in previous studies on COVID-19 [19,22].”

    From Mental Health in Healthcare Workers Post-COVID-19: A Latin American Review and Insights into Personalized Management Strategies (2024) · cites this paper as [19]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 1 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In Colombia, healthcare workers in the middle socioeconomic stratum showed 1.00 times higher risk of depressive symptoms than those in the high socioeconomic stratum, who had 0.72 times higher risk, although this difference was not statistically significant (95% CI: 0.61-4.84).

    “Healthcare workers in the middle socioeconomic stratum showed 1.00 times higher risk (95% CI: 1.16–3.45) of depressive symptoms than those in the high socioeconomic stratum, who exhibited a 0.72 times higher risk, although this difference was not statistically significant (95% CI: 0.61–4.84).”

    From Mental Health in Healthcare Workers Post-COVID-19: A Latin American Review and Insights into Personalized Management Strategies (2024) · cites this paper as [19]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In Colombia, tobacco users reported 2.51 times higher likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms than non-users.

    “Additionally, tobacco users reported a 2.51 times higher likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms than did non-users [19].”

    From Mental Health in Healthcare Workers Post-COVID-19: A Latin American Review and Insights into Personalized Management Strategies (2024) · cites this paper as [19]

    The Results section reports an association between tobacco use and depressive symptoms, and the Discussion calls tobacco use a risk factor while cautioning that causation cannot be established. The available passages do not give a 2.51-fold estimate, and the study concerns healthcare workers at one institution in Bogotá rather than tobacco users across Colombia. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In Colombia, healthcare professionals in outpatient care had 1.82 times higher risk of developing depressive symptoms compared to their counterparts in other settings.

    “Regarding the impact of the work environment on mental health, a study in Colombia found that healthcare professionals in outpatient care had a 1.82 times higher risk of developing depressive symptoms compared to their counterparts in other settings.”

    From Mental Health in Healthcare Workers Post-COVID-19: A Latin American Review and Insights into Personalized Management Strategies (2024) · cites this paper as [19]

    The Results (page unavailable) associate outpatient work with depressive symptoms (p = 0.01) and report higher prevalence in outpatient and inpatient areas than in emergency and other areas. The retrieved text does not give a 1.82-fold estimate for outpatient staff. The Discussion (page unavailable) also identifies the study as cross-sectional and limited to one Bogotá institution, so it cannot establish a risk of developing symptoms across Colombian healthcare professionals. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In Colombia, those working longer hours daily during the COVID-19 pandemic faced 1.80 times greater risk of depressive symptoms than those with shorter work hours.

    “Furthermore, those working longer hours daily during the COVID-19 pandemic faced a 1.80 times greater risk of depressive symptoms than those with shorter work hours.”

    From Mental Health in Healthcare Workers Post-COVID-19: A Latin American Review and Insights into Personalized Management Strategies (2024) · cites this paper as [19]

    The Results (page unavailable) associate healthcare workers’ perception of working more during the pandemic with depressive symptoms, and the Discussion repeats that association. The comparison is with working in previous years, not explicitly with people working shorter daily hours; the passages do not report a 1.80-fold risk. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 30 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Walton, 2020, Atención de salud mental para el personal médico y los trabajadores de la salud afiliados durante la pandemia de COVID-19, Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care., 9, 241
  2. Kushwaha, 2014, Stress management at workplace, Glob J Financ Manag., 6, 469

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Noguera Novoa, C. N., Sarmiento-Melendez, Y. T., Sierra-Hincapié, G. M., & González-Díaz, J. M.
Affiliations
  • Universidad del Rosario (CO)
  • Universidad CES (CO)
  • Hospital Clínic de Barcelona (ES)
ORCID
Venue
Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2025-03
Volume
54
Pages
61-69
ISSN
0034-7450 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.rcp.2023.04.006
PMC
PMC10103618
OpenAlex
W4376171359
Cited by
5
References
30
Citations by year
2025: 1 · 2024: 4
FWCI
1.45
Type
journal article
Language
es
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Occupational Health and Burnout
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare professionals’ stress and burnout
Keywords
depressive symptoms, healthcare workers, COVID-19 pandemic, fear of COVID-19, tobacco use, alcohol abuse, socioeconomic status, mental health of healthcare workers, prevalence, risk factors, Bogotá

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