Best available technologies and treatment trains to address current challenges in urban wastewater reuse for irrigation of crops in EU countries
Open accessAbstract
Conventional urban wastewater treatment plants (UWTPs) are poorly effective in the removal of most contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), including antibiotics, antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes (ARB&ARGs). These contaminants result in some concern for the environment and human health, in particular if UWTPs effluents are reused for crop irrigation. Recently, stakeholders' interest further increased in Europe, because the European Commission is currently developing a regulation on water reuse. Likely, conventional UWTPs will require additional advanced treatment steps to meet water quality limits yet to be officially established for wastewater reuse. Even though it seems that CECs will not be included in the proposed regulation, the aim of this paper is to provide a technical contribution to this discussion as well as to support stakeholders by recommending possible advanced treatment options, in particular with regard to the removal of CECs and ARB&ARGs. Taking into account the current knowledge and the precautionary principle, any new or revised water-related Directive should address such contaminants. Hence, this review paper gathers the efforts of a group of international experts, members of the NEREUS COST Action ES1403, who for three years have been constructively discussing the efficiency of the best available technologies (BATs) for urban wastewater treatment to abate CECs and ARB&ARGs. In particular, ozonation, activated carbon adsorption, chemical disinfectants, UV radiation, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and membrane filtration are discussed with regard to their capability to effectively remove CECs and ARB&ARGs, as well as their advantages and drawbacks. Moreover, a comparison among the above-mentioned processes is performed for CECs relevant for crop uptake. Finally, possible treatment trains including the above-discussed BATs are discussed, issuing end-use specific recommendations which will be useful to UWTPs managers to select the most suitable options to be implemented at their own facilities to successfully address wastewater reuse challenges.
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Pre-treatment via filtration is important to control membrane fouling, and microfiltration and ultrafiltration are suitable pre-treatment methods before NF or RO.
“Also, as pre-treatment via filtration is important to control membrane fouling, it is essential to note that processes such as microfiltration and ultrafiltration are suitable pre-treatment methods before NF or RO [9,54].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [54]
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- ORSA178411. WG acknowledges funding from the Economy and Knowledge Department of the Catalan Government (Consolidated Research Group program: ICRA-TECH -2017 SGR 1318) and from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, the State Agency of Investigation and EU FEDER program (project INVEST: RTI2018-097471-B-C21). SM wishes to thank the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for funding under the ECOSAFEFARMING Project (International Joint Programming Actions, reference: PCIN- 2017-005) and 2016 Water and FACCE JPIs Joint Call. JASP acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) for funding the project CTQ2016-78255-R. PK acknowledges the financial support provided by NIVA's Strategic Institute Initiative "Urban water challenges" (Research Council of Norway, contract no. 160016).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Jafarinejad, S. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17020451 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Jafarinejad, S. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16188109 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Rizzo, L., Gernjak, W., Krzeminski, P., Malato, S., McArdell, C. S., Perez, J. A. S., Schaar, H., & Fatta-Kassinos, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Salerno (IT)
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (ES)
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (CH)
- TU Wien (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Rizzo, Luigi
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 710
- Pages
- 136312
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2996873755
- Cited by
- 308
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 25
- FWCI
- 2.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.dora.lib4ri.ch
- Licence
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DORA Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag)) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- reposiTUm (TU Wien) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- University of Salerno (ORSA178411)
- Economy and Knowledge Department of the Catalan Government
- Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities
- State Agency of Investigation
- EU
- FEDER (RTI2018-097471-B-C21)
- Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (PCIN-2017-005)
- European Regional Development Fund (CTQ2016-78255-R)
- NIVA (160016)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Advanced oxidation water treatment
- Keywords
- urban wastewater reuse, crop irrigation, emerging contaminants, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, antibiotic resistance genes, best available techniques, advanced wastewater treatment, ozonation, activated carbon adsorption, chemical disinfectants, ultraviolet radiation, advanced oxidation processes, membrane filtration, treatment train, water reuse regulation, EU water directives, crop uptake
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