Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent-Based Extraction for Isolating Non-Phthalate Plastic Additives from Radish Samples (Raphanus sativus L.)
Open accessAbstract
Non-phthalate plastic additives (NPPAs) are increasingly used as alternatives to phthalates in plastic manufacturing, but their presence in food crops and associated health risks remain largely underexplored. Thus, a natural deep eutectic solvent-based solid-liquid extraction (NADES-SLE) was developed for determining NPPAs in radish ( Raphanus sativus L.) roots and leaves. Five NADES were synthetized and tested, and the hydrophobic combination of choline chloride and 2,3-butanediol (1:4 molar ratio) yielded the highest extraction efficiency. Its supramolecular structure was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, with nuclear Overhauser enhancement (NOE) effects. Key extraction parameters, NADES type and volume, extraction time, and agitation, were optimised. Seventeen NPPAs were identified and quantified using ultra-high performance liquid-chromatography coupled to quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS). The method showed low quantification limits (6–300 μg/kg), recoveries between 70.0 and 119.1 %, and precision below 20.0 % at three concentration levels. Total NPPA concentrations ranged from 93.9 to 929.4 μg/kg in roots and from 51.4 to 515.6 μg/kg in leaves. Acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) and 1-hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone (HCPK) were the most abundant compounds in roots and leaves, respectively. The analytical greenness metric for sample preparation (AGREEprep) metric scored the method at 0.52, outperforming conventional approaches (0.34–0.42) and confirming its greener profile. Estimated daily intake (EDI) were below tolerable daily intake (TDI) thresholds, indicating minimal dietary risk. This study highlights NADES-SLE as a sustainable and reliable approach for monitoring NPPAs in food crops and supports their safer use in plastic production.
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For solid and semi-solid samples, DES-assisted UAE, MAE, PLE, and NADES-based solid-liquid extraction offer several advantages compared with traditional microextraction techniques.
“For solid and semi-solid samples, DES-assisted ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), and NADESbased solid-liquid extraction offer several advantages compared with traditional microextraction techniques [91,93,95,98,103].”
From Eco-Friendly Deep Eutectic Solvent-Based Extraction Technologies: A Comprehensive Review of Principles, Applications, and Comparative Insights (2026) · cites this paper as [93]
NADES-based solid-liquid extraction has emerged as a promising approach for recovery of natural products because NADESs typically exhibit lower toxicity, improved biocompatibility, and greater suitability for food and pharmaceutical applications than many traditional extraction solvents.
“In addition, NADES-based solid-liquid extraction has emerged as a promising approach for the recovery of natural products because NADESs typically exhibit lower toxicity, improved biocompatibility, and greater suitability for food and pharmaceutical applications than many traditional extraction solvents [91,93,95,98,103].”
From Eco-Friendly Deep Eutectic Solvent-Based Extraction Technologies: A Comprehensive Review of Principles, Applications, and Comparative Insights (2026) · cites this paper as [93]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Capilla-Flores, R., Carbonell-Rozas, L., López-Ruíz, R., Garrido Frenich, A., & Romero-González, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Almería (ES)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2025-10
- Volume
- 47
- Pages
- 102138
- ISSN
- 2352-5541 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4412930280
- Cited by
- 5
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 1
- FWCI
- 1.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Repositorio de Patentes de la Universidad de Almería (Universidad de Almería) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- European Regional Development Fund
- State Agency of Research (PID2022\u2013137122OB-I00, FPU21/00858)
- Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades
- Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Analytical Chemistry › Analytical chemistry methods development
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Catalysis › Ionic liquids properties and applications
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Pesticide Residue Analysis and Safety
- Keywords
- natural deep eutectic solvents, solid-liquid extraction, radish, choline chloride, 2,3-butanediol, food contamination, acetyl tributyl citrate, dietary risk assessment, extraction optimization, green sample preparation
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