Spacing effects on repeated L2 task performance
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Speed fluency is represented by articulation rate because it is relatively independent from breakdown and repair fluency measures.
“First, speed fluency is represented by articulation rate because it is relatively independent from the breakdown and repair fluency measures.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
Section 4.5 (Analysis; page unavailable) identifies speech rate, not articulation rate, as the study’s speed-fluency measure. It also describes speech rate as a potentially composite measure, rather than saying the chosen measure is relatively independent of breakdown and repair fluency. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTask repetition schedules also seem to moderate complexity and accuracy.
“Because task repetition schedules also seem to moderate complexity and accuracy (Bui et al., 2019), authors of future research in this domain need to expand the scope of outcome measures.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
The Complexity section reports no statistically significant difference between spacing conditions for structural or lexical complexity. The Accuracy section states that spacing had no significant effect on accuracy and concludes that “spacing conditions do not moderate the effect.” The authors note limited statistical power, but their reported findings do not support the claimed moderation. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe observed reduction in repair fluency in Bui et al. (2019) could be in part due to less verbatim repetition between the two performances.
“In contrast, the observed reduction in repair fluency could be in part due to the less verbatim repetition between the two performances.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
The results (Table 7 about here; Table 8 discussion) report that a one-week interval slightly reduced verbatim repetitions, a repair measure. Section 6.2 suggests that less language from the first performance remains available verbatim after a week, but it does not establish that this caused the change in repairs; it instead discusses reduced need for repairs after learners have processed the task information. The Conclusion describes the one-week interval as improving, not reducing, repair fluency. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBui et al. (2019) conducted the first and only study in which the task repetition interval was systematically manipulated in research design to investigate distributed practice effects in speaking tasks.
“To the best of our knowledge, Bui et al. (2019) conducted the first and only study in which the task repetition interval was systematically manipulated in research design to investigate the distributed practice effects in speaking tasks.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
The Abstract describes five systematically varied intervals between repeated speaking-task performances. Section 6.3 says no prior study had directly compared spacing conditions in one study and calls this study 'probably the first attempt.' That supports the design and a qualified claim of priority, but the paper cannot establish that it remained the only such study. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBui et al. (2019) found that different amounts of spacing influence complexity-accuracy-fluency changes from Time 1 to Time 2.
“Their findings indicated that different amounts of spacing influence complexityÀaccuracyÀfluency (CAF) changes from the first (Time 1) to the second (Time 2) speech.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
The Conclusion reports that spacing appeared to affect structural complexity and fluency between performances, with different intervals associated with different gains. But §6.2 states that accuracy was not related to spacing, and the Complexity results found no statistically significant differences between spacing conditions. The claim overgeneralizes the spacing effect to all three CAF dimensions. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
An effect size above 0.50 was considered meaningful in the current study, based on treatment-specific effect sizes from Donovan and Radosevich's meta-analysis and Bui et al.'s study.
“Based on the treatment-specific effect sizes from Donovan and Radosevich's meta-analysis and Bui et al.'s study, the effect size above 0.50 was considered meaningful in the current study.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
In the analysis passage labelled “Table 3 about here” (page unavailable), Bui et al. say they report effect sizes for mean differences, so the citation does identify a study with treatment-related effect-size results. Our copy does not establish an effect size above 0.50 as a meaningful threshold; that threshold is the citing authors’ decision, not one shown in Bui et al. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Bui et al. (2019), EFL learners in Hong Kong engaged in oral picture description task twice under five different schedules (0-day, 1-day, 3-day, 7-day, and 14-day intervals).
“In their study, EFL learners in Hong Kong engaged in oral picture description task twice under five different schedules (0-day [massed], 1-day, 3-day, 7-day, and 14-day intervals).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
Bui et al. (2019) revealed that different task-repetition schedules influence fluency changes from Time 1 to Time 2, and their findings raised the question of the extent to which repetition schedule influences retention and transfer of fluency training effect.
“While Bui et al. (2019) revealed that different task-repetition schedules influence fluency changes from Time 1 to Time 2”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
Learners in the 7-day interval group in Bui et al. (2019) might be more likely to use newly formulated messages in the second performance while maintaining understanding of the task information process.
“Learners in the 7-day interval group might be more likely to use newly formulated messages in the second performance, while maintaining the understanding of the task information process (e.g., content, planning).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
According to Bui and collaborators, immediate repetition allowed learners to recycle linguistic expressions for the subsequent performance because those expressions were primed and accessed more readily.
“According to Bui and collaborators, immediate repetition allowed leaners to recycle the linguistic expressions (e.g., lexical items) for the subsequent performance, as those expressions were primed and accessed more readily.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
In Bui et al. (2019), the massed group showed the largest gain from Time 1 to Time 2 in speed fluency, whereas the 7-day interval group showed the largest reduction in breakdown and repair fluency.
“Most relevant to the current study on fluency development, the massed group showed the largest gain from Time 1 to Time 2 in their speed fluency (words per minute), whereas 7-day interval group showed the largest reduction in breakdown (filled pauses) and repair fluency (repetitions).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bui et al., 2019
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Relationship Between Utterance and Perceived Fluency: A Meta‐Analysis of Correlational Studies
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“From the perspective of speech productionmechanisms, both filled and silent pauses are assumed to reflect breakdowns in speech production processes (Kormos, 2006; Segalowitz, 2010) and the time needed to handle such disruptions (Bui et al., 2019).”
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Research on learning and teaching of languages other than English in System
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MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT
Suzuki, Y., & Hanzawa, K. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263121000358 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“While Bui et al. (2019) revealed that different task-repetition schedules influence fluency changes from Time 1 to Time 2, their findings also brought to light an important question—to what extent repetition schedule influences the “retention” and “transfer” of the fluency training effect.”
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Self-citationTabari, M. A., & Wang, Y. (2022) · Assessing Writing: An International Journal · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2022.100605 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Task repetition and collaborative writing by EFL children: Beyond CAF measures
Hidalgo, M., & Lázaro-Ibarrola, A. (2020) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2020.10.3.5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“The fact that findings regarding some aspects are inconclusive (Bui et al., 2018; Bygate, 2018) may be partly due to the great diversity of variables analyzed (context, age, level, tasks, and time span between repetitions) (Lázaro-Ibarrola & Hidalgo, 2017).”
Qiu, X.-Y. (2022) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2022.2142245 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“For example, task repetition can enhance L2 oral performance (Bui et al., 2019), but L2 learners may feel bored with repeating tasks with familiar topics (Qiu & Lo, 2017).”
Task Repetition and Corrective Feedback: The Role of Feedback Types and Structure Saliency
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Task Planning and Oral L2 Production: A Research Synthesis and Meta-analysis
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Spacing Effects in Task Repetition Research
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“While previous research suggests that task repetition positively affects task performance regardless of the length of intervals, one-week intervals appear to be particularly effective at enhancing language performance (i.e., structural complexity and repair fluency) (Bui et al., 2019).”
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“…of task difficulty expressing that ‘the task was easy’, which reflects the value of task repetition as a facilitating tool to free learners’ mental effort (Bui et al., 2018; Bygate, 1996; Bygate & Samuda, 2005) so that they are able to focus on the language and, ultimately, improve their draft.”
BackgroundA state-of-the-art review of distribution-of-practice effects on L2 learning
Serrano, R. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2022.12.3.2 · Cited by 15
“In the case of oral fluency, Bui et al. (2019) examined the effect of task repetition under different schedules for the development of L2 oral complexity, accuracy, and fluency.”
Task sequencing and L2 writing development: Exploring the SSARC model of pedagogic task sequencing
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“Finally, the role of task spacing also must be acknowledged, because learners are more oriented to using language that is primed for usage by immediate repetition (Bui, Ahmadian & Hunter, 2019).”
Understanding the SSARC model of task sequencing: Assessing L2 writing development
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“Following Bui et al. (2019), the speech samples were co-coded by research assistants and one of the researchers.”
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“Bui, Ahmadian, and Hunter (2019) also found that regardless of the length of time between a production task and its repetition, task repetition aided fluency and structural complexity.”
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Task repetition and L2 oral performance: A meta-analysis
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Focus on form in task repetition through oral and written task modeling
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Task Planning and Task‐Readiness
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Effects of massed and spaced task repetitions on L2 writing task performance and task emotions
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“Researchers have recently begun incorporating distributed practice effects into task repetition studies, significantly enriching this field of inquiry (Suzuki & Hanzawa, 2022; Bui et al., 2019; Kakitani & Kormos, 2024; Kobayashi, 2021; Suzuki, 2021).”
The effects of interleaved and blocked corpus-based practice on L2 pragmatic development
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“Even though speech rate is usually regarded as a global measure of fluency (Huensch & Tracy-Ventura, 2017), “ it provides adequate indication of the overall speed at which a person speaks ” (Bui et al., 2019, p. 5).”
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“While acknowledging the benefit of task repetition for improvement in test taker performance (Bui et al., 2019), the rationale behind the limitation on item re-administration is to promote fairness for all test takers by eliciting their most recent, current oral performance independent of potential…”
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“In a recent article, Bui, Ahmadian and Hunter (2019) asserted that experience creates complex, eloquent or precise speech functionality.”
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Oral task repetition research via videoconferencing
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“In group 2, learners likely struggled more to reuse the same ideas, a phenomenon that has been observed in studies focused on TR with a greater spacing between sessions or under an interleaved schedule (e.g., Bui et al., 2019; Suzuki, 2021).”
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THE EFFECT OF INPUT SPACING ON EFL LEARNERS' VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE
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Hanzawa, K., Suzuki, Y., Yanagisawa, A., & Fukuta, J. (2026) · Research Methods in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.rmal.2025.100292 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bui, G., & Yu, R. (2019) · English Literacy Instruction for Chinese Speakers · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-6653-6_8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationRavand, H., & Kazemifard, M. (2026) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688261471791
Effects of Learning Context and Program Length on L2 Skill Development
Lu, Y., & Ke, C. (2026) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.70085
Evaluating and enhancing the accuracy of automated fluency annotation tools in L2 research
Lu, J., & Rogers, J. (2026) · Research Methods in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.rmal.2026.100302
Serrano, R., & Pellicer‐Sánchez, A. (2026) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716425100283
“This more fluent reading performance in the massed condition is in line with other studies that have found that massed repetitions enhance certain aspects of oral fluency (Bui et al., 2019; Suzuki & Hanzawa, 2022).”
Preliminary thoughts on the role of disfluencies in psychotherapy skill acquisition
Sacks, D. W., & Anholt, G. (2023) · Workshop on Disfluency in Spontaneous Speech · doi:10.21437/diss.2023-6
“Based on the findings relating task difficulty with disfluencies, verbal fluency has been used as a measure of skill acquisition in a number of studies, most notably in the field of second language acquisition [24], [40].”
Yu, L., Kasuma, S., & Singh, M. K. A. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2026.100579
- Authors
- Bui, G., Ahmadian, M. J., & Hunter, A.-M.
- Affiliations
- Hang Seng University of Hong Kong (HK)
- University of Leeds (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Ahmadian, Mohammad Javad
- Venue
- System
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-04
- Volume
- 81
- Pages
- 1-13
- ISSN
- 0346-251X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2903908484
- Cited by
- 106
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 36.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- System (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- RGC
- The University Grants Committee of Hong Kong (UGC/FDS14/H01/14)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Phonetics and Phonology Research
- Keywords
- task repetition, spacing effect, English as a foreign language, picture description task, second language performance, fluency, structural complexity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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