TASK REPETITION AND SECOND LANGUAGE SPEECH PROCESSING

May combine two claims.

Linguistic encoding mechanisms can be facilitated by priming effects from the student's own previous performances as well as by the lexical items and syntactic constructions in their partner's speech.

“These encoding mechanisms can be facilitated by priming effects from the student's own previous performances as well by the lexical items and syntactic constructions in their partner's speech (McDonough & Trofimovich, 2009;Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

• cites McDonough & Trofimovich, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pickering & Ferreira, 2008 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Clause-final pausing decreased significantly only from the first to the second performance; later differences were not statistically significant.

“the frequency of pauses at clause boundaries decreased significantly from the first to the second performance only (p = .047,d = 0.40) (cf., Wang, 2014), but the differences between subsequent repetitions did not reach statistical significance at the .05level (2-3 p = .146,d = 0.21; 3-4 p = .071,d = 0.36; 4-5 p = .921,d = 0.03; 5-6 p = .576,d = 0.08).”

• cites Wang, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

There were no significant interactions between repetition, task type, and proficiency level individually or in combination, and effect sizes were small.

“this analysis revealed no significant interactions between this form of repetition, task type, and proficiency level individually or in combination with small effect sizes in all of these comparisons”

May combine two claims.

Clause-final pausing varied considerably across tasks: the largest gains were between the second and third repetition for opinion tasks, between the first and second repetition for narration, and negligible on all repetitions for instruction.

“there was considerable variation in clause-final pausing across tasks.The largest gains were between the second and third repetition for the opinion tasks, between the first and second repetition of the narration task, and negligible on all repetitions the instruction task”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Immediate aural-oral repetition of the same task, with different interlocutors, was associated with improvements in L2 oral fluency, and this held across proficiency levels and task types.

“Results revealed that immediate aural-oral same task repetition was related to gains in oral fluency regardless of proficiency level or task type.”

• Also stated in: § RESULTS · hedged

  “This indicates that the overall effects of aural-oral task repetition were generally robust for speakers of different proficiency levels completing tasks of differing discourse demands.”

May combine two claims.

Follow-up univariate analyses found the repetition effect statistically significant for all four fluency measures, with a very large effect size for speech rate and medium effect sizes for clause-final pauses, mid-clause pauses, and self-repairs.

“follow-up univariate analyses revealed that this repetition effect was statistically significant across all four aspects of L2 fluency, but with a very large effect size for speech rate, and medium effect sizes for the other pause and self-repair phenomena observed”

May combine two claims.

Speech rate differed significantly between all consecutive performances except between the fifth and sixth, and the increase continued through the fifth performance.

“Pairwise comparisons revealed that the aural-oral repetition effect on the rate of L2 speech production was due to differences between all performances (1-2 p = .000,d = 1.53; 2-3 p = .000,d = 1.48; 3-4 p = .016,d = 0.48; 4-5 p = .000,d = 0.84) except Performance 5 and 6 which was not significant (p = .943,d = 0.05).”

May combine two claims.

Clause-final pausing generally descended until the fourth performance on all task types, after which non-linear patterns emerged.

“we see a generally descending pattern until the fourth performance on all task types after which non-linear patterns of development begin to emerge”

May combine two claims.

For speech rate, effect sizes were large across the first three performances only and small to medium from the fourth through fifth performance.

“However, the effect size was large according to the criteria posited by Plonsky and Oswald (2014) across the first three performances only and small to medium thereafter through the fifth performance”

• cites Plonsky and Oswald (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Speech rate gains were largest over the first three performances of each task type and continued to increase until the fifth performance.

“Overall gains in speech rate were the largest across the first three performances of each task type, but continued until the fifth performance.”

• Also stated in: § Speech Rate · plain

  “the effect of immediate aural-oral task repetition as speaker and listener with different interlocutors on speech rate continued to increase significantly through the fifth performance of the tasks in the study.”

May combine two claims.

The effect of aural-oral task repetition on clause-final pausing was relatively small and limited to the first two task performances.

“The effect of aural-oral task repetition on clause-final pausing was relatively small according Plonsky and Oswald (2014) and limited to the first two task performances”

• cites Plonsky and Oswald (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Usefulness in terms of incorporation was rated most relevant for the opinion task, lowest for the instruction task, with narration in between.

“It is interesting to note that usefulness in terms of incorporation was felt to be the most relevant for the opinion task where task content was open and lowest for the instruction task where the task was structured and relatively inflexible with the narration task falling in between.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A few participants recalled that during later repetitions they stopped incorporating new linguistic constructions into their performance.

“In addition, a few participants recalled that during the later repetitions, they stopped incorporating new linguistic constructions into their performance.”

May combine two claims.

For mid-clause filled pauses, differences between performances 1 and 3, 2 and 4, and 3 and 5 were statistically significant, while the difference between performances 4 and 6 was not.

“On the other hand, the difference between every second performance up to the fifth performance did reach statistical significance (1-3 p = .001,d = .71;2-4 p = .003,d = .50;3-5 p = .049,d = .30),whereas the difference between Performances 4-6 did not (p = .595,d = .12).”

May combine two claims.

For self-repairs, differences between performance 5 and performances 1 and 2, and between performance 6 and performances 1, 2, and 3 were statistically significant, though effect sizes were small according to Plonsky and Oswald (2014).

“However, the differences between the fifth repetition and the first two performances 1-5 (p = .017,d = 0.45), 2-5 (p = .01,d = 0.48), and the differences between the sixth performance and the first three performances were significant: 1-6 (p = .017,d = 0.50), 2-6 (p = .015,d = 0.51), 3-6 (p = .020,d = 0.49) although the effect sizes were small according to Plonsky and Oswald (2014).”

• cites Plonsky and Oswald (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Only three of 32 participants (9.4%) expressed boredom after the fourth performance; on the opinion and instruction tasks all three were in the high-level group, and on the narration task one participant from each group expressed boredom.

“Only three of the 32 participants (9.4%) expressed boredom after the fourth performance.On the opinion and instruction tasks, all three were in the high-level group.On the narration task, one participant from each group expressed boredom.”

May combine two claims.

Except for the second performance of the narration task, mid-clause pausing showed a clearly descending pattern through the third performance on all task types, after which it began to fluctuate.

“With the exception of the second performance of the narration task, we see a clearly descending pattern through the third performance on all task types after which mid-clause pausing behavior begin to fluctuate”

May combine two claims.

The effect size for the first repetition on mid-clause filled pauses was larger than the other repetitions but still small according to the benchmarks of Plonsky and Oswald (2014).

“Although the effect size for the first repetition was larger than the others, it was still small according to the benchmarks proposed by Plonsky and Oswald (2014).”

• cites Plonsky and Oswald (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Self-repair frequency was stable between the first two performances for all groups when clause-final pausing effects were significant, and relatively stable through the third performance when mid-clause pausing effects were largest.

“The frequency of self-repairs is stable between the first two performances of the task set for all groups when clause-final pausing effects were significant (see Figure 4), and relatively stable through the third performance when mid-clause pausing effects were the largest (see Figure 7).”

May combine two claims.

The initial effect of aural-oral repetition on mid-clause filled pauses was most pronounced between the lowest proficiency learners' first and second performances, after which all proficiency groups showed a generally descending pattern in mid-clause pausing until the fourth performance.

“Furthermore, comparison of the performance of the three proficiency levels reveals that the initial effect of aural-oral repetition on mid-clause filled pauses was most pronounced between the lowest proficiency level learners' first and the second performances of the task set after which all groups show a generally descending pattern in mid-clause pausing until the fourth performance”

May combine two claims.

Significant changes in overt self-repair behavior were only detected between the fifth and first two performances and the sixth and first three performances.

“significant changes in overt self-repair behavior were only detected between the fifth and first two performances and the sixth and first three performances respectively.”

May combine two claims.

On the instruction and narration tasks, self-repair followed a similar pattern throughout the first five repetitions, while on the opinion task there was a sudden decrease in fluency due to increased self-repair during Performance 4.

“Likewise, when participants' performance on each task is compared, production on the instruction and narration tasks followed a similar pattern throughout the first five repetitions, but their performance on the opinion task showed a sudden decrease in fluency due to an increase in self-repair during Performance 4”

May combine two claims.

Participants' speech rate improved markedly over the first three performances and then gradually until the fifth performance.

“participants' speech rate improved markedly over the first three performances and then gradually until the fifth performance”

May combine two claims.

Nearly all participants reported that repeating the task was useful on the opinion and narration tasks, and three-quarters indicated it was beneficial on the instruction task.

“Nearly all of them reported that repeating the task was useful on the opinion and narration tasks, and three-quarters of them indicated that it was beneficial on the instruction task.”

May combine two claims.

For participants who did not feel that six performances of a task were necessary, the optimal number of repetitions they perceived as useful was four for the narration task, slightly less for the opinion task, and closer to three for the instruction task.

“For the proportion of participants who did not feel that six performances of a task were necessary, the optimal number of repetitions they perceived as being useful for the narration task was four, slightly less for the opinion task, and closer to three for the instruction task.”

May combine two claims.

A large number of participants mentioned benefits regarding improvements in fluency, and they also reported instances of learning from their peers and of existing knowledge representations being primed.

“Benefits with regard to improvements in fluency were mentioned by a large number of participants, and they also reported instances of learning from their peers and of existing knowledge representations being primed.”

May combine two claims.

For lower proficiency speakers, lexical retrieval and grammatical encoding may require attentional resources and lead to breakdowns in parallel processing.

“For lower proficiency speakers, however, lexical retrieval and grammatical encoding might also require attentional resources and hence might result in varying degrees of breakdown in parallel processing (de Bot, 1992;Kormos, 2006).”

• cites de Bot, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kormos, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Filled and unfilled pauses between clauses indicate conceptualization and content planning, while filled and unfilled pauses within clauses signal breakdowns in lexical and syntactic encoding.

“it can be argued that filled and unfilled pauses between clauses are indicators of conceptualization and content planning whereas filled and unfilled pauses within clauses signal breakdowns in lexical and syntactic encoding (Butterworth, 1975)”

• cites Butterworth, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The results indicate a robust connection between task repetition and speech rate and suggest a possible ceiling effect for immediate practice on speech rate at five repetitions.

“The results thus indicate a robust connection between task repetition and speech rate and point to the possibility of a ceiling effect for immediate practice on speech rate at five repetitions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The modular model of speech production postulates three primary stages: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation.

“The modular model of L1 speech production proposed by Levelt (1989Levelt ( , 1999) ) and adapted to L2 speech production by de Bot (1992) and Kormos (2006) postulates three primary stages of speech production.”

• cites Levelt (1989, 1999)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites de Bot (1992)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kormos (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The reduction in performance time from 120 to 90 seconds after the second repetition did not constitute a pressured performance or eliminate during-task planning time, because participants generally did not use all available time.

“Thus, the reduction in time after the second performance in the sequence cannot be argued to have constituted a pressured performance, reducing or eliminating during-task planning time, as participants generally did not use all of the time that they had available.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Proficiency level was generally distributed across the design.

“It can be seen in Table 2 that proficiency level was generally distributed across the design.”

May combine two claims.

Inter-coder reliability was very high for clause-final pauses (r=.956), mid-clause pauses (r=.952), and self-repairs (r=.966).

“Two-tailed Pearson correlations revealed inter-coder reliability to be very high for clause final pauses (r =.956, N=36, p <.0001), mid-clause pauses (r =.952, N=36, p <.0001), and self-repairs (r =.966, N=36, p <.0001).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

For proficient speakers, formulation may be largely automatic and allow parallel processing, while conceptualization and monitoring may require attention and serial processing.

“For proficient speakers, formulation may be largely automatic and allow for parallel processing with other modules, whereas conceptualization and monitoring may both require attention and thus rely on serial processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The frequency of overt self-repairs may reflect the availability of attentional resources for monitoring.

“the frequency of overt self-repairs might be argued to reflect the availability of attentional resources for monitoring (Kormos, 1999).”

• cites Kormos, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The effects of aural-oral task repetition on mid-clause pausing persisted until the fourth performance, with effect sizes decreasing from medium to small.

“Thus, the effects of aural-oral task repetition on mid-clause pausing did not dissipate until the fourth performance but the effect size decreased from medium to small (Plonsky and Oswald, 2014)”

• cites Plonsky and Oswald, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Opinion tasks may require increased attention to conceptual planning, whereas tasks conveying familiar or visually provided information may pose lower conceptualization demands and allow reallocation of attention to linguistic encoding.

“Opinion tasks, for example, might require increased attention to conceptual planning, either at the expense of attention to linguistic encoding or in addition to it.”

• Also stated in: § BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION · hedged

  “By contrast, tasks in which learners have to convey familiar information, or information provided visually, such as personal or picture-based narrations or instructions, might pose lower attentional demands during conceptualization and allow learners to reallocate attentional resources to linguistic encoding.”

May combine two claims.

The clause-final pausing results complement Wang's (2014) findings because the average length of pauses at clause boundaries decreased after one repetition of the task.

“Our results for clause-final pausing complement Wang's (2014) findings in that the average length of pauses at clause boundaries decreased after one repetition of our task.”

• cites Wang (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The effects of task repetition on speech processing may vary with speakers' proficiency level, and task repetition may yield fewer gains for more advanced learners.

“The effects of task repetition on speech processing might also vary depending on the proficiency level of the speakers who complete the tasks.”

• Also stated in: § BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION · hedged

  “For this reason, task repetition might result in fewer gains for more advanced learners as one of its primary functions is to allow learners to activate relevant content and linguistic encoding processes.”

• cites Segalowitz, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Mid-clause pausing signals breakdowns in the linguistic encoding process and tends to occur because of difficulties in lexical access or syntactic encoding.

“Mid-clause pausing has been found to signal breakdowns in the linguistic encoding process and tends to occur because of difficulties in lexical access or syntactic encoding (Götz, 2013;Kormos, 2006).”

• cites Götz, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kormos, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Clause-final pausing is used by speakers for content planning, activating background knowledge and task-specific schemas, and ordering the information to be conveyed.

“Previous research has shown that clause-final pausing is used by speakers for content-planning, activating background knowledge and task-specific schemas, as well as for ordering the information to be conveyed (Butterworth, 1975;Götz, 2013).”

• cites Butterworth, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Götz, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Speech rate is an overall measure of utterance production speed but is not a pure indicator of encoding speed because it includes hesitation time.

“speech rate is an overall measure of the speed with which an utterance is produced, but it is not a pure indicator of encoding speed as it includes hesitation time (see Götz, 2013).”

• cites Götz, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Wang (2014), speech rate increased and average length of unfilled pauses at clause boundaries decreased, while average length of unfilled pauses within clauses and frequency of reformulations were unaffected by repetition.

“However, in Wang's (2014) study, speech rate increased and the average length of unfilled pauses at clause boundaries decreased, whereas the average length of unfilled pauses within clauses and the frequency of reformulations were unaffected by repetition.”

• cites Wang, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The reduced frequency of self-repairs in the fifth and sixth performances suggests that participants' accuracy and efficiency in linguistic encoding had improved by that point, so fewer reformulations and overt self-corrections were necessary.

“The reduced frequency of self-repairs in the fifth and sixth performances suggests that the participants' accuracy and efficiency in linguistic encoding had improved by this point so that fewer reformulations and overt self-corrections were necessary.”

May combine two claims.

The present results indicate a reduction in clause-final pausing for all learners on the first task repetition, suggesting that one benefit of the first task repetition is enhancement of the conceptualization process.

“The results for the present study indicate a reduction in clause-final pausing for all learners on the first task repetition suggesting that one of the benefits of the first task repetition is the enhancement of the conceptualization process.”

May combine two claims.

Task repetition allows learners to rely on previously conceptualized content and recently used linguistic constructions, which may reduce attentional demands during conceptualization, encoding, and monitoring.

“Task repetition allows L2 learners to rely on previously conceptualized task content and to activate recently used linguistic constructions to express their message.This might reduce the attentional demands on learners to conceptualize, encode and monitor their messages simultaneously.”

May combine two claims.

Participants generally did not become bored or fatigued, but appreciated the chance to complete the same tasks with different partners across the time frame of a typical lesson.

“Furthermore, it indicates that participants generally did not become bored or fatigued, but appreciated the chance to complete the same tasks with different partners across the time frame of a typical lesson.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The effects of task repetition may vary with the speech production demands of tasks.

“The effects of task repetition, however, might vary depending on the speech production demands of tasks.”

May combine two claims.

The instruction task is much easier than the other two tasks because its content is very repetitive across the picture frames, and the plateau effect might have been felt at an earlier stage.

“Finally, the instruction task is much easier than the other two tasks due to the fact that the content is very repetitive across the picture frames, and the plateau effect might have been felt at an earlier stage.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The approach used in the study preserves the integrity of the tasks as communicative tools and adds external or ecological validity to the results because they are more reflective of task repetition as it is likely to occur inside and outside the classroom.

“As we argued earlier in this paper, however, the benefit of the approach used in the study was that it preserves the integrity of the tasks as communicative tools.It also adds external or ecological validity to the results in that they are more reflective of task repetition as it is likely to occur inside and outside the classroom.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The opinion task is open-ended, and because participants hear entirely different opinions about the photos each time they repeat the task, they may perceive a plateau in their improvement.

“The opinion task, on the other hand, is open-ended.As participants hear entirely different opinions about the photos each time they repeat the task, they may perceive a plateau in their improvement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The results should be interpreted in terms of optimizing speech production in the short term when input-based and output-based tasks are repeated with different interlocutors in a classroom situation, because the order in which learners received input from speakers of different proficiency levels varied across the six repetitions of the task set and this variation could have affected uptake at不同点。

“Nevertheless, it is necessary that the results be interpreted in terms of optimizing speech production in the short term when input-based and output-based tasks are repeated with different interlocutors in a classroom situation as the order in which learners received input from speakers of different proficiency levels varied across the six repetitions of the task set, and this variation could have”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The decision to collect data in a classroom context with students working in pairs rather than recording monologue tasks alone in a laboratory resulted in background noise that made it impossible to analyze the location and duration of unfilled pauses reliably with automated software, so the study only considered filled clause-final and mid-clause pauses.

“First, the decision to collect the data in a classroom context with students working in pairs with each other rather than being recorded performing the monologue tasks alone in a laboratory environment resulted in a level of background noise that made it impossible to analyze the location and duration of unfilled pauses reliably with automated software.The results of the study are thus limited in”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The narration task has a clear structure with variation in content from frame to frame, allowing learners to refine their resources while focusing their efforts.

“The narration task has a clear structure together with variation in content from frame-to-frame.Success is perceived when the story is told to conclusion, and the variation in the content allows learners to refine their resources in each stage of the story.In other words, the task is structured enough for learners to focus their efforts, but at the same time challenging enough to incorporate varia”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The decision to have students work in pairs and alternate speaker and listener roles might also have contributed to the lack of boredom and fatigue expressed in participants' responses to the tasks.

“The decision to have students work in pairs and alternate speaker and listener roles might also have contributed to the lack of boredom and fatigue expressed in participants' responses to the tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is possible that because higher-level learners' linguistic encoding processes are more automatized than those of lower-level learners, the allocation of attentional resources and the benefits of task repetition for conceptual and linguistic processing vary at different levels of proficiency.

“It is possible, however, that because the linguistic encoding processes of higher level learners are more automatized than those of lower level learners, the allocation of attentional resources and the benefits of task repetition for conceptual and linguistic processing vary at different levels of proficiency.”

May combine two claims.

Although efforts were made to distribute these effects across the design through partial counterbalancing, the study combines the effect of task repetition with that of interlocutor input.

“Although efforts were made to distribute these effects across the design through partial counterbalancing (see Procedures above), the study combines the effect of task repetition with that of interlocutor input.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

Repetition may thus have been perceived to be less useful for the opinion task.

“Repetition may thus have been perceived to be less useful (see Table 8).”