The Influence of Planning and Task Type on Second Language Performance

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A focus on form is very important if language development is to occur.

“a focus on form (rather than a focus on forms, i.e., form in general rather than any form in particular) is very important if language development is to occur (Doughty, 1991)”

• cites Doughty, 1991 sourcePartly supported

  The Saliency and Conclusion sections report that focus on form helped learners acquire English relativization. But the Comprehension and Rule Internalization section says both the meaning-oriented and rule-oriented treatments facilitated acquisition, so the paper does not establish that focus on form, rather than focus on forms, is necessary for language development. Page numbers are not available in the supplied passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Pauses and total silence achieved significance for all three tasks, with very high levels achieved for the Narrative and Decision tasks.

“The figures in Table 6 indicate that pauses and total silence achieved significance for all three tasks, with very high levels achieved for the Narrative and Decision tasks.”

May combine two claims.

The detailed planners produced a level of accuracy greater than the no planning condition for the Personal and Decision tasks, but the no planning condition produced more accurate performance than detailed planning in the Narrative task.

“In addition, the detailed planners produced a level of accuracy that was greater than the no planning condition for the Personal and Decision tasks, but the no planning condition produced more accurate performance than detailed planning in the Narrative task.”

May combine two claims.

No significant differences were found for greater variety of present-tense usage, modals, or conditionals.

“No significant differences were found for greater variety of present-tense usage (i.e., forms other than the simple present), modals, or conditionals.”

May combine two claims.

There are significant differences in the proportion of error-free clauses used under the different planning conditions, but these differences show a complex pattern.

“The central finding here is that there are significant differences in the proportion of error-free clauses that were used under the different planning conditions, but these differences show a complex pattern.”

May combine two claims.

The relationship between planning and accuracy is more complex, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners.

“a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners.”

May combine two claims.

For complexity, the detailed planners always produced significantly greater complexity than the undetailed planners, who in turn outperformed the no planning group.

“The findings for complexity, in contrast, essentially supported Hypothesis 5 across the tasks, with the detailed planners always producing significantly greater complexity than the undetailed planners, who in turn outperformed the no planning group (with only the comparison for the no planners vs. the undetailed planners failing to reach significance).”

May combine two claims.

For the Personal and Decision tasks, there was only an overall effect for planning versus no planning, with little difference between the two planning conditions.

“for the Personal and Decision tasks there was only an overall effect for planning versus no planning, the results showing little difference between the two planning conditions”

May combine two claims.

For the Decision task, the no planning condition was significantly different from the two planning conditions, but the two types of planning did not produce significantly different effects.

“The F ratio of 5.73 for the Decision task is significant at the .01level, with Duncan range tests demonstrating that the no planning condition was significantly different from the two planning conditions but that the two types of planning did not produce significantly different effects.”

May combine two claims.

The syntactic variety results patterned similarly to the fluency measures, with little difference between the two planning conditions.

“The syntactic variety results, which provided only limited support for the more specific Hypothesis 3, patterned similarly to the fluency measures, with little difference between the two planning conditions.”

May combine two claims.

Detailed planning produced significantly more subordination than undetailed planning, which in turn produced significantly more subordination than no planning.

“The results in Table 8 suggest a very strong effect for the planning condition: Detailed planning produced significantly more subordination than undetailed planning, which in turn produced significantly more subordination than no planning.”

May combine two claims.

The Decision task's accuracy level is comparable to that obtained with the Personal task and above that obtained for the Narrative task.

“The accuracy level, it will be recalled, is comparable to that obtained with the Personal task (and above that obtained for the Narrative task).”

May combine two claims.

The planning effect on fluency is monotonic for the Narrative task, but there is only a binary distinction for the other two tasks (detailed and undetailed conditions do not lead to different patterns of pausing and total silence).

“This effect is of a monotonic nature for the Narrative task, but there is only a binary distinction for the other two tasks (i.e., the detailed and undetailed conditions do not lead to different patterns of pausing and total silence).”

May combine two claims.

Planning produces more repetitions/hesitations and replacements in the Decision task, rendering the discourse, in one sense, less fluent.

“Planning produces more of these, rendering the discourse, in one sense, less fluent.”

May combine two claims.

The measures of syntactic variety were not strong and provide no clear support for Hypothesis 6.

“The measures of syntactic variety were not strong, in any sense, and provide no clear support for Hypothesis 6.”

May combine two claims.

The changes in accuracy were least for the Narrative task, with even a reduction of accuracy level for the detailed versus the undetailed planners.

“It is relevant, in this respect, that the changes in accuracy were least for this task, with even a reduction of accuracy level for the detailed versus the undetailed planners.”

May combine two claims.

Consistent with Crookes (1989), complexity became the preeminent goal under detailed planning, but accuracy suffered to some degree, reducing to a point midway between the undetailed and nonplanning conditions for the Personal task, below the no planning conditions for the Narrative task, and only slightly inferior to the undetailed planning for the Decision task.

“Consistent with Crookes (1989), complexity became the preeminent goal, but accuracy suffered to some degree, reducing to a point midway between the undetailed and nonplanning conditions for the Personal task, below the no planning conditions for the Narrative task, and only slightly inferior to the undetailed planning for the Decision task.”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Personal and Decision tasks lead on average error (proportions 0.70 and 0.69), whereas the Narrative task produces the lowest overall accuracy level (0.61).

“Here, the Personal and Decision tasks lead (average error proportions of 0.70 and 0.69, respectively), whereas the Narrative task produces the lowest overall accuracy level (0.61).”

May combine two claims.

The least complex language is used with the Personal task (1.18 clauses per c-unit), the Decision task produces more complex language (1.32), and the Narrative task produces the most complex language of all (1.44).

“The least complex language is used with the Personal task (1.18 clauses per c-unit), the Decision task produces more complex language (1.32), and the Narrative task produces the most complex language of all (1.44).”

May combine two claims.

Hypothesis 5 is only supported to a limited degree and the results obtained reveal a more complex picture than was predicted.

“we have to conclude that Hypothesis 5 is only supported to a limited degree and that the results obtained reveal a more complex picture than was predicted.”

May combine two claims.

The Decision task's complexity is higher than the Personal task, never as great as the Narrative task, and shows a more marked effect for planning.

“Complexity, in contrast, although never as great as the Narrative task, is higher than the Personal task and shows a more marked effect for planning.”

May combine two claims.

There is an accuracy effect in the present study, even though statistically it is not as strong as that for complexity or fluency.

“So it is already striking that there is an accuracy effect in the present study, even though statistically it is not as strong as that for complexity or fluency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This pattern of results has been replicated in a subsequent study (Foster & Skehan, 1996).

“This pattern of results has been replicated in a subsequent study (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”

• cites Foster & Skehan, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The fluency measures for the Personal task reduced by less than those for the Decision task and, most of all, the Narrative.

“The fluency measures for the Personal task reduced by less than do those for the Decision task and, most of all, the Narrative”

May combine two claims.

The Personal task generates a greater degree of accuracy without achieving much complexity.

“The Personal task generates a greater degree of accuracy without achieving much complexity.”

May combine two claims.

With accuracy, the Personal task and the Decision task produce clear (and fairly similar) gains, whereas the degree of improvement for the Narrative task is less marked.

“With accuracy, the Personal task and the Decision task produce clear (and fairly similar) gains, whereas the degree of improvement for the Narrative task is less marked.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

If only base forms are used, there would seem to be little impetus for interlanguage change to occur through the use of more challenging forms.

“If only base forms are used, such as simple present or simple past tenses, there would seem to be little impetus for interlanguage change to occur through the use of more challenging forms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Personal task should be easiest and most accessible to learners.

“This characterization suggests that the Personal task should be easiest and most accessible to learners”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The data set, based on 31 subjects, is otherwise complete.

“The data set, based on 31 subjects, is otherwise complete.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Decision-Making task placed the heaviest cognitive load upon the subject and allowed the least attentional resources to be given to language form.

“This task was considered to place the heaviest cognitive load upon the subject and to allow the least attentional resources to be given to language form.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Narrative task is easier than the Decision task.

“On balance, then, the Narrative task is judged to be easier than the Decision task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Posttask activities with a strong focus on form can have a beneficial effect on earlier task performance, provided that learners themselves make the connection between task completion and subsequent posttask activity.

“posttask activities with a strong focus on form can have a beneficial effect on (earlier) task performance itself, provided that learners themselves make the connection between task completion and subsequent posttask activity.”

• cites J.Willis & Willis, 1988Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The c-unit is a more sensitive measure for spoken language than the T-unit because it allows for ellipsis.

“The c-unit, defined by Brock (1986) as an independent utterance providing referential or pragmatic meaning, allows for ellipsis and is thus a more sensitive measure for the spoken language.”

• cites Brock (1986) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Error-free clauses generalize across a range of different specific forms and are not dependent on any one of them.

“Clauses would also generalize across a range of different specific forms and not be dependent on any one of them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The choice of the three task types was based on an analysis of tasks commonly used in current English language teaching textbooks.

“The choice of these types was based on an analysis of tasks commonly used in current English language teaching textbooks.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Narrative and Decision tasks are similar to one another in that they provide relatively low familiarity but a high computational load.

“the Narrative and Decision tasks are similar to one another in that they provide relatively low familiarity but a high computational load.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Accuracy concerns control at a particular interlanguage level.

“Accuracy, in contrast, concerns control at a particular interlanguage level.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These comparisons do not attain significance in specific pairwise comparisons, but the trend in the results is clear.

“These comparisons do not attain significance in specific pairwise comparisons, but the trend in the results is clear.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Complexity emphasizes the organization of what is said and draws attention to progressively more elaborate language and greater variety of syntactic patterning.

“Complexity emphasizes the organization of what is said and draws attention to the progressively more elaborate language that may be used, as well as a greater variety of syntactic patterning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Accuracy may not reflect complexity of language and may be the result of relatively simple, well-controlled forms being used to achieve a more target-like use of language.

“a measure of accuracy may not reflect complexity of language and may be the result of relatively simple, well-controlled forms being used to achieve a more target-like use of language.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Crookes (1989) relied principally on specific measures, and this may have been a factor in the lack of significance reported.

“Crookes (1989) relied principally on specific measures (target-like use of the article system and of plural -s), and this may have been a factor in the lack of significance reported.”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fluency reflects the effectiveness of the planning process and the way propositions can be orchestrated into effective, ongoing discourse.

“Fluency also reflects the effectiveness of the planning process and the way propositions can be orchestrated into effective, ongoing discourse.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Accuracy, as a reflection of a focus on form, may have a more conservative orientation, whereas complexity may capture a greater willingness to experiment and to take risks.

“accuracy, as a reflection of a focus on form, may have a more conservative orientation, whereas complexity may capture a greater willingness to experiment and to take risks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Complexity is likely to reflect a willingness to engage in restructuring as more complex subsystems of language are developed.

“Complexity is likely to reflect a willingness, on the learner's part, to engage in restructuring as more complex subsys-terns of language are developed.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In second language learning, the main competition for attentional resources is between meaning and form, with first priority generally being given to meaning.

“the main competition for attentional resources is between meaning and form, with first priority generally being given to meaning (VanPatten, 1990).”

• cites VanPatten, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In each experimental group, half the subjects were randomly assigned the undetailed planning condition and half the detailed planning condition.

“The experimental groups were each divided into two, and in each case half the subjects were randomly assigned the undetailed planning condition and half the detailed planning condition (see Table 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Error-free clauses should produce good intersubject variation.

“such a measure should produce good intersubject variation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Fluency reflects the primacy of meaning and the capacity to cope with real-time communication.

“Skehan (1992Skehan ( , 1996)), following Schmidt (1990), takes fluency to reflect the primacy of meaning and the capacity to cope with real-time communication.”

• cites Skehan, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Skehan, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schmidt, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Any trend toward a practice effect on errors does not influence the conclusions to be drawn later.

“In any case, given the counterbalanced nature of the research design, any trend toward a practice effect on errors does not influence the conclusions to be drawn later.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.

May combine two claims.

In Crookes (1989), standard deviations for the measures reported tended to be higher for the planning groups for the complexity measures, suggesting that some subjects interpreted the planning instructions in different ways.

“the standard deviations for the measures reported tended to be higher for the planning groups for the complexity measures, suggesting that some subjects interpreted the planning instructions in different ways”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Complexity is likely to be associated with greater risk-taking to the extent that actual performances may be exploited to use forms closer to the cutting edge of interlanguage development.

“It is also likely to be associated with greater risktaking to the extent that actual performances may be exploited to use forms closer to the cutting edge of interlanguage development.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Decision-Making task was considered most likely to require the use of complex language.

“the process of trying to reach an agreement on a series of difficult questions was considered most likely to require the use of complex language.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The calculation of error-free clauses has merit as a measure of accuracy.

“the calculation of error-free clauses has merit”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Measures of syntactic variety (tense, aspect, voice, modality) reflect a capacity to draw upon a greater variety of language.

“one can also try to measure the range of syntactic forms used, as these reflect a capacity to draw upon a greater variety of language.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Transacting tasks will push forward interlanguage development because the demands that tasks make will engage the very processes that lead to acquisition.

“transacting tasks will push forward interlanguage development because the demands that tasks make will engage the very processes that lead to acquisition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

General measures are likely to be more sensitive to differences in experimental conditions, detecting weaker effects because these are likely to be based on more variance.

“such measures are likely to be more sensitive to differences in experimental conditions, detecting weaker effects because these are likely to be based on more variance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Subjects were protected from any special pressure that selection for recording might have had upon their performance.

“In this way, subjects were protected from any special pressure that selection for recording might have had upon their performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Complexity connects with change and opportunities for development and growth in the interlanguage system.

“Complexity, in other words, connects with change and the opportunities for development and growth in the interlanguage system.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

To combat any practice effect, each of the controls and each of the experimental groups did the tasks in a different order.

“To combat any practice effect, each of the controls and each of the experimental groups did the tasks in a different order (see Table 3).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Personal Information Exchange task required relatively simple linguistic forms to be used.

“the nature of the task would require relatively simple linguistic forms to be used.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Fluency may prioritize lexicalized language and the way learners avoid rule-based, constructed language, instead preferring more idiom-based language to enable communication to proceed more smoothly.

“It may therefore prioritize lexicalized language (Ellis, 1987) and the way learners, during tasks, avoid rule-based, constructed language, instead preferring to use more idiom-based language (Sinclair, 1991) to enable communication to proceed more smoothly.”

• cites Ellis, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sinclair, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Decisions to attend to one area are usually made at the expense of attending to another.

“decisions to attend to one area are usually made at the expense of attending to another.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Ellis (1987) found that accuracy on the regular (rule-governed) form of the past tense declined according to lack of planned discourse being engaged, whereas performance on the irregular (lexical) past form was hardly affected by these conditions.

“Ellis (1987) found that accuracy on the regular (rule-governed) form of the past tense declined according to lack of planned discourse being engaged, whereas performance on the irregular (lexical) past form was hardly affected by these conditions.”

• cites Ellis (1987) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Personal Information Exchange task required the least cognitive effort and allowed the greatest attention to language form.

“it was seen as requiring the least cognitive effort and allowing the greatest attention to language form.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Attention and noticing are central for second language development.

“attention and noticing are central for second language development”

• cites Schmidt, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schmidt, 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A focus on form makes noticing more likely and enables language teaching goals of accuracy and complexity to be pursued more effectively.

“such a focus makes noticing more likely and also enables language teaching goals of accuracy and complexity (Skehan, 1992) to be pursued more effectively.”

• cites Skehan, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Crookes (1989) reported that providing subjects with pretask planning time leads to greater complexity and variety of language but no significant increases in accuracy.

“Crookes (1989) reported a study in which providing subjects with pretask planning time leads to greater complexity and variety of language but no significant increases in accuracy.”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Narrative task gave scope for more complex language but demanded greater cognitive effort, therefore allowing less attention to be devoted to form.

“It was seen as giving scope for more complex language but also demanding greater cognitive effort, therefore allowing less attention to be devoted to form.”

May combine two claims.

The goals of complexity and accuracy compete for limited information processing resources, and what is achievable depends on the precise allocational decisions made.

“What seems to be happening is that the goals of complexity and accuracy compete for limited information processing resources and that what is achievable depends on the precise allocational decisions made.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When the lower level of his performance was noticed, his results were removed from the data set.

“When the lower level of his performance was noticed, his results were removed from the data set.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Midtask manipulations may also influence the balance among the goals of fluency, complexity, and accuracy.

“The framework also suggests that midtask manipulations may also influence the balance among the goals of fluency, complexity, and accuracy.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These conclusions are based on just three tasks.

“But these conclusions are based on just three tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One subject had to be discarded when it was realized that the college had not applied its own selection policy to him.

“Subsequently, one subject had to be discarded when it was realized that the college had not applied its own selection policy to him.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Crookes' tasks were devices for the transmission of neutral and arbitrary information.

“They were, quite simply, devices for the transmission of neutral and arbitrary information.”

• cites Crookes' (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The use of repetitions and replacements indicates naturalness of discourse.

“But we interpret this finding to suggest naturalness of discourse, in that native speakers also engage in a greater use of such linguistic behaviors to enable them to cope with the problem of real-time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Piloting reduced the risk of basing the research project on unpopular and unproductive tasks.

“In this way, the risk of basing the research project on unpopular and unproductive tasks was reduced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Crookes (1989) seemed to be testing for specific increases in accuracy, whereas the present study was more interested in detecting a more generalized accuracy effect.

“Crookes (1989) seemed to be testing for specific increases in accuracy, whereas we were more interested in detecting a more generalized accuracy effect.”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A generally similar pattern of results is reported in Alvarez-Ossario (1994).

“A generally similar pattern of results is reported in Alvarez-Ossario (1994).”

• cites Alvarez-Ossario (1994)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Even so, it must be borne in mind that the effect, in such a case, was on accuracy, not on complexity.

“Even so, it must be borne in mind that the effect, in such a case, was on accuracy, not on complexity.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Crookes (1989) looked for specific effects on a wide range of variables, whereas the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness.

“Crookes (1989) looked for specific effects on a wide range of variables, whereas the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness.”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Crookes' (1989) tasks, such as a LEGO assembly, were classroom tasks and did not have much connection with the subjects' real lives.

“Crookes' (1989) tasks, for example, a LEGO assembly, were classroom tasks and did not have much connection with the subjects' real lives.”

• cites Crookes' (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Even if there were an effect that has not been detected in the present study, the underlying cause may be task familiarity, or simply improvements in proficiency over time.

“In any case here, even if there were an effect that has not been detected in the present study, the underlying cause may be task familiarity, or simply improvements in proficiency over time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Subjects under the unplanned condition, who would benefit most from techniques to protect time for ongoing planning, are unable to exploit them.

“In other words, it may be that the subjects under the unplanned condition, who would benefit most from the use of techniques to protect time for ongoing planning, are unable to exploit them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The students were following courses of instruction, and it may be that this instruction was having an effect.

“The students were following courses of instruction, and it may be that this instruction was having an effect.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The use of a dependent variable such as error-free clauses is more sensitive to an overall accuracy effect.

“It may simply be, therefore, that the use of a dependent variable such as error-free clauses is more sensitive to an overall accuracy effect, a proposal perhaps consistent with the weaker finding in this area than for complexity.”

May combine two claims.

Detailed planning seemed to lead to a level of pressure too great for subjects to cope with all aspects of performance, with the result that prioritizing decisions had to be made.

“But the next condition, detailed planning, seemed to lead to a level of pressure too great for subjects to cope with all aspects of performance, with the result that prioritizing decisions had to be made.”

May combine two claims.

Crookes (1989) reported a complexity effect, but no significant differences for accuracy.

“The most comparable study (Crookes, 1989) reported a complexity effect, but no significant differences for accuracy.”

• cites Crookes, 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These results contrast with those of Crookes (1989) in that here planning is associated with a greater degree of accuracy, at least some of the time.

“First, these results contrast with those of Crookes (1989) in that here planning is associated with a greater degree of accuracy, at least some of the time.”

• cites Crookes (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Midtask and posttask activities are important.

“It also suggests that midtask and posttask activities are important.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Narrative task is less effective at meeting the criterion of real-world connection.

“In passing, it should be noted that the Narrative task is less effective at meeting this criterion of real-world connection, as there is obviously an arbitrary, detached quality to producing an imaginary story based on a set of (relatively) unrelated photographs.”

May combine two claims.

Ellis (1987) reported an effect of planning on accuracy, but the study focused on only one language form (the past tense) and its experimental conditions might be thought to favor accuracy.

“Although Ellis (1987) reported such an effect, it was for a study that focused on only one language form (the past tense, so that no complexity dimension was involved) and for which the experimental conditions (talking, alone, into a tape recorder) might be thought to favor accuracy.”

• cites Ellis (1987) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The contrast in findings may be due to the nature of the measures used.

“First of all, the contrast in findings may be due to the nature of the measures used.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Before the study proper began, candidate tasks were piloted at a neighboring college to determine for each of the three types which task was the most productive of language and the most enjoyable to do.

“Before the study proper began, a number ol candidate tasks were piloted at a neighboring college in order to determine for each of the three types which task was the most productive of language and the most enjoyable to do.”