Modelling the co-occurrence of Streptococcus pneumoniae with other bacterial and viral pathogens in the upper respiratory tract
Open accessAbstract
Otitis media (OM) is a major burden for all children, particularly for Australian Aboriginal children. Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus influenzae and viruses (including rhinovirus and adenovirus) are associated with OM. We investigated nasopharyngeal microbial interactions in 435 samples collected from 79 Aboriginal and 570 samples from 88 non-Aboriginal children in Western Australia. We describe a multivariate random effects model appropriate for analysis of longitudinal data, which enables the identification of two independent levels of correlation between pairs of pathogens. At the microbe level, rhinovirus infection was positively correlated with carriage of S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis, and adenovirus with M. catarrhalis. Generally, there were positive associations between bacterial pathogens at both the host and microbe level. Positive viral-bacterial associations at the microbe level support previous findings indicating that viral infection can predispose an individual to bacterial carriage. Viral vaccines may assist in reducing the burden of bacterial disease.
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In the nasopharyngeal compartment of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children in Australia, positive associations were detected between hRV and S. pneumoniae, H. influenza, and Moraxella catarrhalis carriage as well as between adenovirus and M. catarrhalis.
“In the nasopharyngeal compartment of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children in Australia, positive associations were detected between hRV and S. pneumoniae, H. influenza, and Moraxella catarrhalis carriage as well as between adenovirus and M. catarrhalis (111).”
From Respiratory viral infection-induced microbiome alterations and secondary bacterial pneumonia. (2018) · cites this paper as [111]
There is a positive association between colonization of H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae, and colonization is a prerequisite for disease.
“Of course it is known that there is a positive association between the colonization of H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae, and colonization is a prerequisite for disease, so the presence of such co-infection fits with current knowledge (Jacoby et al., 2007; Abdullahi et al., 2008).”
From Secondary bacterial infections associated with influenza pandemics (2017) · cites this paper as Jacoby et al., 2007
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“However, our findings support previous studies, which postulate that an existing respiratory viral infection can predispose an individual to bacterial colonisation of the URT by creating conditions for increased adherence [7, 8, 33, 34] .”
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“owever, our findings support previous studies, which postuate that an existing respiratory viral infection can predispose n individual to bacterial colonisation of the URT by creting conditions for increased adherence [7,8,33,34].”
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“owever, our findings support previous studies, which postuate that an existing respiratory viral infection can predispose n individual to bacterial colonisation of the URT by creting conditions for increased adherence [7,8,33,34].”
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“Our findings are supported by an in vitro study by Budhani and Struthers who showed that S. pneumoniae was protected from benzylpenicillin and amoxycillin when grown in the presence of -lactamase-producing M. catarrhalis but susceptible to these antibiotics when grown with non--lactamase-producing moraxellae [30] .”
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“Through statistical modelling we found positive hostlevel associations between carriage of the three bacterial pathogens causing OM, which is consistent with previous studies showing that environmental factors such as crowding, presence of siblings in the household, day care attendance or exposure to environmental tob…”
ResultLafontaine, E. R., Wall, D., Vanlerberg, S. L., Donabedian, H., & Sledjeski, D. D. (2004) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.72.11.6689-6693.2004 · Cited by 39 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Data are limited on the co-occurrence of bacteria in the URT [10] [11] [12] and on associations between colonising pathogens in the absence of symptoms.”
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“Modelling of multivariate longitudinal data is frequently performed but in most cases the correlations between dependent variables are regarded as nuisance parameters which must be accounted for in order to estimate fixed effects accurately [21, 22] .”
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“One previous study has investigated separate levels of multivariate association in longitudinal binary data with a similar approach to that used here [23] .”
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“Environmental factors and immune function may play a role [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] .”
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Secondary bacterial infections associated with influenza pandemics
Morris, D. E., Cleary, D. W., & Clarke, S. C. (2017) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01041 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
“pneumoniae, and colonization is a prerequisite for disease, so the presence of such co-infection fits with current knowledge (Jacoby et al., 2007; Abdullahi et al., 2008).”
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“Acute otitis media in children has been attributed to coinfections with RV or RSV and bacteria, and RV infection positively correlated with the presence of Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis (1, 22).”
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“pneumoniae colonization in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children in Australia (11).”
InfluentialPettigrew, M. M., Laufer, A. S., Gent, J. F., Kong, Y., Fennie, K. P., & Metlay, J. P. (2012) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.01051-12 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“catarrhalis, and Staphylococcus aureus are also present (7, 29, 46).”
Microbial Interactions in the Respiratory Tract
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“It has previously been reported that rhinovirus presence correlates with presence by standard culture of each of the three major otopathogens [107], and adenovirus with M. catarrhalis presence assessed by culture and PCR [6, 107].”
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“In the case of three bacterial species which colonize the human nasopharynx (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae), epidemiological studies show that cocolonization is rarer than expected [ 17-21 ].”
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A hypothetical explanatory model for meningococcal meningitis in the African meningitis belt
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Jacoby, P., Carville, K. S., Hall, G. V., Riley, T. V., Bowman, J. M., Leach, A. J., & Lehmann, D. (2011) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/inf.0b013e318217dc6e · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Human Pharyngeal Microbiome May Play A Protective Role in Respiratory Tract Infections
Gao, Z., Kang, Y., Yu, J. M., & Ren, L. (2014) · Genomics Proteomics & Bioinformatics · doi:10.1016/j.gpb.2014.06.001 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Therefore, it is rather reasonable to infer that the pharyngeal microbiome also share such common features of all human microbiomes, although the understanding of which mainly comes from studies on intestinal microbiome.”
BackgroundJourdain, S., Smeesters, P. R., Denis, O., Dramaix, M. W., Sputael, V., Malaviolle, X., Melderen, L. V., & Vergison, A. (2010) · Clinical Microbiology and Infection · doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03410.x · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“The nasopharynx of young children presents specific characteristics: (i) an immature immunological response, (ii) increased microbial exchanges due to enhanced contacts, and (iii) high susceptibility to viral respiratory infections [5–8].”
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Rodrigues, F. M. P., Foster, D., Nicoli, E. J., Trotter, C. L., Vipond, B. B., Muir, P., Gonçalves, G., Januário, L., & Finn, A. H. R. (2013) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/inf.0b013e31827687fc · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Wiertsema, S. P., Chidlow, G. R., Kirkham, L. S., Corscadden, K. J., Mowe, E. N., Vijayasekaran, S., Coates, H. L. C., Harnett, G. B., & Richmond, P. (2011) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.22221 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“pneumoniae was described in this cohort when using adjusted statistical models [Jacoby et al., 2007; Moore et al., 2010].”
MethodNasopharyngeal microbial interactions in the era of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination
Dunne, E. M., Smith‐Vaughan, H., Robins-Browne, R. M., Mulholland, K., & Satzke, C. (2013) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.03.024 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Nasopharyngeal Bacterial Interactions in Children
Xu, Q., Almudervar, A., Casey, J. R., & Pichichero, M. E. (2012) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1811.111904 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“catarrhalis—in young children (8,10,11,16), but the results were contradictory (9).”
The role of respiratory viruses in the etiology of bacterial pneumonia
Lee, K. H., Gordon, A., & Foxman, B. (2016) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eow007 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“catarrhalis are believed to be positively associated [22,26,28,37].”
Gupta, A., Karyakarte, R. P., Joshi, S., Das, R., Jani, K., Shouche, Y. S., & Sharma, A. (2021) · Microbes and Infection · doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2021.104880 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
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Moore, H. C., Jacoby, P., Taylor, A., Harnett, G. B., Bowman, J. M., Riley, T. V., Reuter, K., Smith, D. W., & Lehmann, D. (2010) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/inf.0b013e3181d067cb · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Australian Aboriginal children could be considered “otitis-prone” since they have a high burden of OM.6,8 A prospective Finnish study of otitis-prone children21 identified rhinoviruses in 39% of specimens collected from asymptomatic children compared with our 24% in Aboriginal children, but did not identify enough ade…”
BackgroundInfluentialViral-bacterial co-infection in Australian Indigenous children with acute otitis media
Binks, M., Cheng, A. C., Smith‐Vaughan, H., Sloots, T. P., Nissen, M. D., Whiley, D. M., McDonnell, J., & Leach, A. J. (2011) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/1471-2334-11-161 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Human rhinovirus (HRV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza virus A and B (FLUA, FLUB), HAdV, HCoV and parainfluenza virus 1, 2 and 3 (PIV 1, PIV2 & PIV3) are commonly associated with OM [12-14].”
BackgroundPeltola, V. T., Heikkinen, T., Ruuskanen, O., Jartti, T. T., Hovi, T., Kilpi, T. M., & Vainionpää, R. (2010) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/inf.0b013e318208ee82 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Rhinovirus infection is frequently associated with nasopharyngeal pneumococcal colonization and pneumococcal otitis media.(12,32) In our earlier study, rhinovirus and S.”
BackgroundKodani, M., & Winchell, J. M. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Microbiology · doi:10.1128/jcm.05987-11 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“gens, since coinfections often exist (3, 4, 5, 8).”
BackgroundMueller, J. E., Yaro, S., Madec, Y., Somda, P., Idohou, R. S., Njanpop‐Lafourcade, B., Drabo, A., Tarnagda, Z., Lassana, S., Traoré, Y., et al. (2008) · Tropical Medicine & International Health · doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2008.02165.x · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Moreover, as our results suggest, upper respiratory tract infections may increase transmission and mucosal adhesion in the pharynx of bacteria like meningococci (Young et al. 1972; Alonso & Taha 2003; Jacoby et al. 2007).”
ResultKrishnamurthy, A., McGrath, J., Cripps, A. W., & Kyd, J. M. (2009) · Microbes and Infection · doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2009.03.001 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“pneumoniae with other bacterial and viral pathogens in the upper respiratory tract of children has also recently been established using statistical modelling [9].”
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Airway microbiome-immune crosstalk in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Kayongo, A., Robertson, N. M., Siddharthan, T., Ntayi, M. L., Ndawula, J. C., Sande, O. J., Bagaya, B. S., Kirenga, B., Mayanja‐Kizza, H., Joloba, M. L., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1085551 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Effects of nasopharyngeal microbiota in respiratory infections and allergies
Kang, H. M., & Kang, J. H. (2021) · Korean Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.3345/cep.2020.01452 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
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Theories of otitis media pathogenesis, with a focus on Indigenous children
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Jacobs, D. M., Ochs‐Balcom, H. M., Zhao, J., Murphy, T. F., & Sethi, S. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Microbiology · doi:10.1128/jcm.00330-18 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
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“Nonencapsulated S. pneumoniae and NTHi induce polymicrobial OM The majority of cases of OM are polymicrobial in nature (Jacoby et al. 2007; Laufer et al. 2011).”
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Interactions between bacteria in the human nasopharynx: a scoping review
Yu, K., Tenaglia, V. P., Chua, E. G., Haines, R. R., Bahal, G. N., Nicol, M. P., & Bahal, R. K. (2025) · The Lancet Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.lanmic.2024.101062 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
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“However, there were tendencies in the data which suggest that successful pneumococcal colonization may be more likely in those carrying Hi at baseline and less likely in those carrying Sa; these are associations consistent with previous studies [3,4,6,26–28].”
ResultNasal swab bacteriology by PCR during the first 24‐months of life: A prospective birth cohort study
PALMU, A. A. I., Ware, R. S., Lambert, S. B., Sarna, M. K., Bialasiewicz, S., Seib, K. L., Atack, J. M., Nissen, M. D., & Grimwood, K. (2019) · Pediatric Pulmonology · doi:10.1002/ppul.24231 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“An interesting finding was the high proportion of bacterial codetections, compared to those based on marginal prevalences, in children sharing the same risk factors.(26,27) Bacteria may act synergistically in the nasopharynx, although competition can also occur.”
Background5. Microbiology and Immunology
Barenkamp, S. J., Ogra, P. L. O., Bakaletz, L. O., Chonmaitree, T., Heikkinen, T., Hurst, D. S., Kawauchi, H., Kurono, Y., Leiberman, A., Murphy, T. F., et al. (2005) · Annals of Otology Rhinology & Laryngology · doi:10.1177/00034894051140s109 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
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“However, few studies have directly studied bacterium-virus interactions by sampling longitudinally for both bacteria and viruses (4, 5).”
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Gierse, L. C., Meene, A., Skorka, S. B., Cuypers, F., Surabhi, S., Ferrero‐Bordera, B., Kreikemeyer, B., Becher, D., Hammerschmidt, S., Siemens, N., et al. (2023) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.03447-22 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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“These findings are in line with negative virus-to-virus interactions and positive interactions seen between viral and bacterial pathogens [3,43 – 45].”
ResultDukers–Muijrers, N. H. T. M., Stobberingh, E. E., Beisser, P. S., BOESTEN, R. C. H., JACOBS, P., & Hoebe, C. J. P. A. (2012) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s095026881200115x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“studies could not demonstrate an inverse effect for either vaccine or non-vaccine types [17] or overall SPn carriage, without analysing the serotypes separately [18].”
BackgroundThe bacterial interactions in the nasopharynx of children receiving adenoidectomy
Chen, H. X., Lai, C., Hsu, H.-Y., Huang, J.-C., Wu, H.-S., Ho, M., Tsai, M.-H., & Lin, C.-D. (2015) · Biomedicine · doi:10.7603/s40681-015-0006-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“This result was similar to the previous epidemiologic observations [9, 10, 22, 23].”
BackgroundResultKorona‐Głowniak, I., Niedzielski, A., Kosikowska, U., Grzegorczyk, A., & Malm, A. (2014) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s0950268814001460 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Abotsi, R. E., Nicol, M. P., McHugh, G., Simms, V. M., Rehman, A. M., Barthus, C., Mbhele, S., Moyo, B., Ngwira, L. G., Mujuru, H. A., et al. (2021) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-021-05904-3 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Sawaswong, V., Chanchaem, P., Klomkliew, P., Rotcheewaphan, S., Meesawat, S., Kemthong, T., Kaewparuehaschai, M., Noradechanon, K., Ekatat, M., Kanitpun, R., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-53880-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wu, L., Zhang, J., Wu, Z., Pei, H., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-025-10493-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Additionally, a variety of respiratory viral pathogens may inhibit the growth of other viruses through resource competition, immune responses, or interference with viral proteins [37, 38].”
Kelly, M. S., Shi, P., Boiditswe, S. C., Qin, E., Steenhoff, A. P., Mazhani, T., Patel, M. Z., Cunningham, C. K., Rawls, J. F., Luinstra, K., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60552-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…of H. in fl u-enzae , M. catarrhalis , and S. pneumoniae is observed more frequently than would be expected based on the prevalence of each species 19 – 24 , while a negative association between URT colonization by S. aureus and S. pneumoniae has been observed in many 20 – 23 , but not all 24,25…”
Molecular mechanisms of co-infections
Walch, P., & Brož, P. (2025) · EMBO Reports · doi:10.1038/s44319-025-00517-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…described for, among others, pathogens causing severe respiratory disease, including Rhinovirus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus in fl uenzae (Jacoby et al, 2007), Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli with Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) or Campylobacter (Colgate et al, 2023), and…”
Viral-Bacterial Interactions in Childhood Respiratory Tract Infections
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“Rhinovirus and pneumococcus have been observed to be positively associated in healthy children under-2 [2, 38].”
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New horizons: otitis media research in Australia
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“It is known that viral infection predisposes the host to bacterial colonization and infection [19, 38], but the”
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The nasopharyngeal virome in adults with acute respiratory infectionPreprint
Sandybayev, N. T., Beloussov, V., Strochkov, V. M., Solomadin, M., Granica, J., & Yegorov, S. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.08.21.554191 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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“This striking pattern has been validated in previous studies [38–40], while differed from the balanced mix of synergistic and antagonistic interactions typically observed in healthy airway microbiomes [41], implying that disease conditions may select for cooperative microbial strategies.”
Regulatory T lymphocytes are associated with increased nasopharyngeal colonization in children
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKelly, M. S., Shi, P., Boiditswe, S. C., Qin, E., Steenhoff, A. P., Mazhani, T., Patel, M. Z., Cunningham, C. K., Rawls, J. F., Luinstra, K., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.10.22.24315478
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Abotsi, R. E., Nicol, M. P., McHugh, G., Simms, V. M., Rehman, A. M., Barthus, C., Mbhele, S., Moyo, B., Ngwira, L. G., Mujuru, H., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14121593
- Authors
- Jacoby, P., Watson, K., Bowman, J., Taylor, A., Riley, T. V., Smith, D. W., & Lehmann, D.
- Affiliations
- The Kids Research Institute Australia (AU)
- Pathwest Laboratory Medicine (AU)
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Jacoby, Peter
- Venue
- Vaccine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007-03
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 13
- Pages
- 2458-2464
- ISSN
- 0264-410X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7173051
- OpenAlex
- W2013365839
- Cited by
- 96
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 10 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 2.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Vaccine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Murdoch University Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Health and Medical Research Council (6028, 212044, 10564, 353514)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Pneumonia and Respiratory Infections
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Otorhinolaryngology › Ear Surgery and Otitis Media
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Microbiology › Microbial infections and disease research
- Keywords
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, otitis media, Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus influenzae, rhinovirus, adenovirus, upper respiratory tract, nasopharyngeal carriage, microbial co-occurrence, Aboriginal children, viral-bacterial interactions, viral vaccines, Western Australia
- MeSH terms
- Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Otitis Media, Pneumococcal Infections, Respiratory Tract Infections, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Models, Statistical, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
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