Predicting environmental learning from spatial abilities: An indirect route

Allen, Gary L.; Kirasic, Kathleen C.; Dobson, Shannon H.; Long, Richard G.; Beck, Sharon

doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(96)90026-4

Cited by 194Spatial Cognition and NavigationCognitive Abilities and TestingGeography Education and Pedagogy

Predicting environmental learning from spatial abilities: An indirect route

Allen, Gary L., Kirasic, Kathleen C., Dobson, Shannon H., Long, Richard G., Beck, Sharon·1996·Intelligence

DOI 10.1016/s0160-2896(96)90026-4

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/s0160-2896(96)90026-4

Cites

38 of 38 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The human evaluation protocol used in this study is in line with classical protocols in human cognition.
“This is in line with classical protocols in human cognition (Allen et al., 1996; Hegarty et al., 2006; Pazzaglia & Taylor, 2007; Weisberg et al., 2014; Meneghetti et al., 2016; 2021).”
From Does Spatial Cognition Emerge in Frontier Models? (2024) · cites this paper as Allen et al., 1996

The Architecture of Cognition
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781315799438 · Cited by 6,761 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1983) · Cited by 5,041 · see citing works
The Child's Conception of Space
Lawrence, E., Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., Langdon, F. J., & Lunzer, J. L. (1957) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3118882 · Cited by 3,213 · see citing works
The Development of Spatial Representations of Large-Scale Environments
Siegel, A. W., & White, S. H. (1975) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(08)60007-5 · Cited by 1,830 · see citing works
Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315808246 · Cited by 1,771 · see citing works
Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences.
McGee, M. G. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.889 · Cited by 1,236 · see citing works
Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation
Thorndyke, P. W., & Hayes‐Roth, B. (1982) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(82)90019-6 · Cited by 1,170 · see citing works
The Child's Conception of Geometry
Richardson, J. E., Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., Szeminska, A., & Lunzer, E. A. (1960) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3119556 · Cited by 890 · see citing works
Nonvisual navigation by blind and sighted: Assessment of path integration ability.
Loomis, J. M., Klatzky, R. L., Golledge, R. G., Cicinelli, J. G., Pellegrino, J. W., & Fry, P. A. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.122.1.73 · Cited by 703 · see citing works
Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1985) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.2.137 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1985) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037//0033-295x.92.2.137 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
Access to knowledge of spatial structure at novel points of observation.
Rieser, J. J. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.15.6.1157 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Human Behavior and Environment
Altman, I., & Wohlwill, J. F. (1977) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-0808-9 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Temne and Eskimo Perceptual Skills
Berry, J. W. (1966) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207596608247156 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Spatial representation and behavior across the life span
Liben, L. S., Patterson, A. H., & Newcombe, N. S. (1981) · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Reference points in spatial cognition.
Sadalla, E. K., Burroughs, W. J., & Staplin, L. J. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.6.5.516 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Spatial Ability: A Review and Reanalysis of the Correlational Literature.
Lohman, D. F. (1979) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Mental rotation and the perspective problem
Huttenlocher, J., & Presson, C. C. (1973) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90015-7 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Memory for Urban Geography
Byrne, R. (1979) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/14640747908400714 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
The coding and transformation of spatial information
Huttenlocher, J., & Presson, C. C. (1979) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(79)90017-3 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Descriptions and depictions of environments
Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B. (1992) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03199581 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
The Development of Spatial Cognition
(2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203781654 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Understanding spatial ability
Pellegrino, J. W., Alderton, D. L., & Shute, V. J. (1984) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461528409529300 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Spatial cognition and behavior in young and elderly adults: Implications for learning new environments.
Kirasic, K. C. (1991) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.6.1.10 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Self-citation
Effects of aptitudes, strategy training, and task facets on spatial task performance.
Kyllonen, P. C., Lohman, D. F., & Snow, R. E. (1984) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.130 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Orientation specificity in spatial memory: What makes a path different from a map of the path?
Presson, C. C., DeLange, N., & Hazelrigg, M. D. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.15.5.887 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
The Description of Spatial-Visualization Abilities
Michael, W. B., Guilford, J. P., Fruchter, B., & Zimmerman, W. S. (1957) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316445701700202 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
The ability to reason about movement in the visual field
Hunt, E. B., Pellegrino, J. W., Frick, R. W., Farr, S. A., & Alderton, D. L. (1988) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(88)90024-4 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Stalking the Elusive Cognitive Map
Siegel, A. W., Krasic, K. C., & Kail, R. V. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-3405-7_7 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Individual differences in complex spatial processing.
Mumaw, R. J., & Pellegrino, J. W. (1984) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.5.920 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
An Analysis of Verbal Reports of Solving Spatial Problems as an Aid in Defining Spatial Factors
Barratt, E. S. (1953) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1953.9712874 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
The Child in the Physical Environment
(2009) · doi:10.5040/9798216004639.ch-012 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Testing based on understanding: Implications from studies of spatial ability
Egan, D. E. (1979) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(79)80002-1 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Way -finding as the perception of information over time
Heft, H. (1983) · Population and Environment · doi:10.1007/bf01258956 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The effects of age and environmental familiarity on adults' spatial problem-solving performance: Evidence of a hometown advantage
Kirasic, K. C. (1989) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610738908259773 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Development of Spatial Cognition
Nelson, C. A., de Haan, M. D. H., & Thomas, K. M. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9780470939413.ch7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Children's spatial knowledge of their school campus.
Anooshian, L. J., & Kromer, M. K. (1986) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.22.6.854 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Assessment of Visuospatial Abilities Using Complex Cognitive Tasks.
Allen, G. L. (1984) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 39 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

Development of a self-report measure of environmental spatial ability
Hegarty, M. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00116-2 · Cited by 1,023 · see citing works
“In factor analysis studies, pencil-and-paper psychometric measures load on different factors than do measures of environmental spatial ability (Allen et al., 1996; Pearson & Ialongo, 1986).”
Background
A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities
Hegarty, M. (2004) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2003.12.001 · Cited by 860 · see citing works
“... are correlated with people’s self-reports of their ‘‘sense of direction,’’ which has considerable predictive validity as a measure of large-scale spatial cognition (Hegarty et al., 2002; Sholl, 1988) . This is an important finding because direct links between the abilities required for successful performance on sm…”
Background
Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning
Hegarty, M., Montello, D. R., Richardson, A. E., Ishikawa, T., & Lovelace, K. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.09.005 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
“Consistent with previous studies (Allen et al., 1996; Pearson and Ialongo, 1986), correlations of paper-and-pencil spatial abilities (the Embedded Figures Test and the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test) with measures of learning from direct experience are relatively low (ranging from .11 to .28);…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
What determines our navigational abilities?
Wolbers, T., & Hegarty, M. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.001 · Cited by 818 · see citing works
Spatial knowledge acquisition from direct experience in the environment: Individual differences in the development of metric knowledge and the integration of separately learned places☆
ISHIKAWA, T., & MONTELLO, D. (2006) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2005.08.003 · Cited by 640 · see citing works
“There are studies of individual diVerences in spatial cognition, for example, with respect to underlying spatial abilities (Allen et al., 1996), sense-of-direction (Hegarty, Richardson, Montello, Lovelace, & Subbiah, 2002), and neural correlates of spatial thinking (Hartley, Maguire, Spiers, &…”
Background
Individual Differences in Spatial Abilities
Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610448.005 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
Gender differences in spatial orientation: A review
Coluccia, E., & Louse, G. (2004) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.006 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Wayfinding with a GPS-based mobile navigation system: A comparison with maps and direct experience
Ishikawa, T., Fujiwara, H., Imai, O., & Okabe, A. (2008) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.09.002 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Sex-Related Differences and Similarities in Geographic and Environmental Spatial Abilities
Montello, D. R., Lovelace, K. L., Golledge, R. G., & Self, C. M. (1999) · Annals of the Association of American Geographers · doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00160 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
“A few studies suggest that factors derived from paper-and-pencil tests account only very weakly for performance on large-scale spatial tasks (Pearson and Ialongo 1986; Bryant 1991; Allen et al. 1996).”
Background
Perspective‐taking vs. mental rotation transformations and how they predict spatial navigation performance
Kozhevnikov, M., Motes, M. A., Rasch, B., & Blajenkova, O. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1192 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
“Allen et al. (1996), for example, found that large-scale pointing direction error did not load on a topographical knowledge factor that included errors in retracing a route in reverse.”
BackgroundInfluential
How do (some) people make a cognitive map? Routes, places, and working memory.
Weisberg, S. M., & Newcombe, N. S. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000200 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition: Advancing the Conversation
Levine, S. C., Foley, A., Lourenco, S., Ehrlich, S., & Ratliff, K. (2016) · WIREs Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1380 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Individual differences in spatial learning from computer-simulated environments.
Waller, D. A. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.6.4.307 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“…of asking participants to draw a line on a piece of paper to represent a bearing and distance estimation (Curtis, Siegel, & Furlong, 1981; Kirasic, Allen, & Siegel, 1984; Witmer et al., 1996) I measured participants' estimated bearings and distances while they were in the environment and by using…”
A Heuristic Framework of Spatial Ability: a Review and Synthesis of Spatial Factor Literature to Support its Translation into STEM Education
Buckley, J., Seery, N., & Canty, D. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-018-9432-z · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“…is a significant body of evidence illustrating its association with perspective taking, memory and spatial skills such as spatial relations and visualisation (Allen et al. 1996; Fields and Shelton 2006; Hegarty et al. 2006; Ishikawa and Montello 2006; Kozhevnikov et al. 2006; Weisberg et al. 2014).”
Body-based senses enhance knowledge of directions in large-scale environments
Waller, D. A., Loomis, J. M., & Haun, D. B. M. (2004) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03206476 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding
Lawton, C. A. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1465-1_16 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
GPS use negatively affects environmental learning through spatial transformation abilities
Ruginski, I. T., Creem-Regehr, S. H., Stefanucci, J. K., & Cashdan, E. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.05.001 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Aging and path integration skill: Kinesthetic and vestibular contributions to wayfinding
Allen, G. L., Kirasic, K. C., Rashotte, M. A., & Haun, D. B. M. (2004) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03194870 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self-citation
Individual skill differences and large-scale environmental learning.
Fields, A. W., & Shelton, A. L. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.3.506 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Spatial Perspective Taking is an Embodied Process, but Not for Everyone in the Same Way: Differences Predicted by Sex and Social Skills Score
Kessler, K., & Wang, H. (2012) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1080/13875868.2011.634533 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“In fact, VPT-2 proficiency has been reported to be the better predictor than OR for learning spatial layouts from navigational experience (Allen et al., 1996; Hegarty & Waller, 2004; Kozhevnikov et al., 2006; Shelton & Fields, 2006), most likely due to the need to continuously update self-object…”
Background
Spatial Thinking in Undergraduate Science Education
Hegarty, M. (2014) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1080/13875868.2014.889696 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Navigation assistance: A trade-off between wayfinding support and configural learning support.
Münzer, S., Zimmer, H. D., & Baus, J. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0026553 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Situating space: using a discipline-focused lens to examine spatial thinking skills
Atit, K., Uttal, D. H., & Stieff, M. (2020) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00210-z · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“…spatial skills, tests of large-scale spatial skills are generally context-dependent and require solving spatial problems that are situated within the environment (Allen, Kirasic, Dobson, Long, & Beck, 1996; Weis-berg & Newcombe, 2016; Weisberg, Schinazi, Newcombe, Shipley, & Epstein, 2014).”
Background
Spatial Cognition
Montello, D. R. (2001) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/02492-x · Cited by 89 · see citing works
MENTAL ROTATION AND REAL-WORLD WAYFINDING
Malinowski, J. C. (2001) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.2001.92.1.19 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
The role of visuo-spatial working memory in map learning: new findings from a map drawing paradigm
Coluccia, E., Bosco, A., & Brandimonte, M. A. (2006) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-006-0090-2 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“However, more direct evidence for an involvement of VSWM in environmental learning comes from a study by Allen, Kirasic, Dobson, Long, and Beck (1996) who found that a “Spatial Sequential Memory” task predicted the performance on some environmental learning tasks, which were performed after navigation in a real enviro…”
Background
Relationship between spatial ability, visuospatial working memory and self-assessed spatial orientation ability: a study in older adults
Mitolo, M., Gardini, S., Caffarra, P., Ronconi, L., Venneri, A., & Pazzaglia, F. (2015) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-015-0647-3 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
The role of body-based sensory information in the acquisition of enduring spatial representations
Waller, D. A., & Greenauer, N. M. (2006) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-006-0087-x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Spatial Knowledge Acquisition in Younger and Elderly Adults
Jansen, P., Schmelter, A., & Heil, M. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000007 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Virtual Environments and the Enhancement of Spatial Behavior: Towards a Comprehensive Research Agenda
Durlach, N. I., Allen, G., Darken, R. P., Garnett, R. L., Loomis, J. M., Templeman, J., & von Wiegand, T. E. (2000) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/105474600300040402 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“(See, for example, Allen, 1999a, 1999b, Allen et al., 1996, and Waller, 1999.)”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Exploring Individual Differences and Building Complexity in Wayfinding: The Case of the Seattle Central Library
Kuliga, S., Nelligan, B., Dalton, R., Marchette, S. A., Shelton, A. L., Carlson, L. A., & Hölscher, C. (2019) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916519836149 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“For example, spatial perspective-taking is associated with various aspects of learning and navigating within an environment (Allen et al., 1996; Hegarty & Waller, 2004; Kozhevnikov & Hegarty, 2001), whereas mental rotation is linked to the spatial processing of complex environmental structures…”
Background
A computerized spatial orientation test
Friedman, A., Kohler, B., Gunalp, P., Boone, A. P., & Hegarty, M. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-019-01277-3 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“The SOT has been used as a measure of spatial ability in studies of large-scale spatial abilities; specifically, it is correlated with measures of learning spatial layouts and with navigation performance (Allen et al., 1996; Fields & Shelton, 2006; Galati, Weisberg, Newcombe, & Avraamides, 2015; Holmes, Marchette, & N…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Neural Correlates of Individual Differences in Spatial Learning Strategies.
Shelton, A. L., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2004) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.442 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Evidence for a unitary structure of spatial cognition beyond general intelligence
Malanchini, M., Rimfeld, K., Shakeshaft, N. G., McMillan, A., Schofield, K. L., Rodic, M., Rossi, V., Kovas, Y., Dale, P. S., Tucker-Drob, E. M., et al. (2020) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-020-0067-8 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The role of mental rotation and age in spatial perspective-taking tasks: when age does not impair perspective-taking performance
Béni, R. D., Pazzaglia, F., & Gardini, S. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1229 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Working memory in spatial knowledge acquisition: Differences in encoding processes and sense of direction
Wen, W., Ishikawa, T., & Satô, T. (2010) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1737 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
How anxiety and growth mindset are linked to navigation ability: Impacts of exploration and GPS use
He, C., & Hegarty, M. (2020) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101475 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Predicting Cognitive Styles from Spatial Abilities
Nori, R., & Giusberti, F. (2006) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/20445319 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Tracing a Route and Finding a Shortcut: The Working Memory, Motivational, and Personality Factors Involved
Pazzaglia, F., Meneghetti, C., & Ronconi, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00225 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Our hypotheses were tested by using path modeling, after a confirmatory factor analysis had validated our distinction of the variables in three groups: spatial ability (measured with VSWM tasks and MRT), affective/motivational factors (spatial self-efficacy, pleasure in exploring, and spatial anxiety), and several per…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Individual differences in the representations of novel environments
Blajenkova, O., Motes, M. A., & Kozhevnikov, M. (2005) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.12.003 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Previous studies in which relationships between visual–spatial abilities and measures of environmental representations were found used orientation tasks (Bryant, 1982; Allen et al., 1996; Waller, 2000), landmark placement tasks (Pearson & Ialongo, 1986; Allen et al., 1996; Waller, 2000), cartographic map route-tracing…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Entwicklung und Validierung eines Fragebogens zu räumlichen Strategien
Münzer, S., & Hölscher, C. (2011) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924/a000040 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
How do individuals with Williams syndrome learn a route in a real‐world environment?
Farran, E. K., Blades, M., Boucher, J., & Tranter, L. J. (2009) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00894.x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Like other researchers, Allen et al. (1996) did not find any direct relationship between a set of small-scale psychometric tests and large-scale spatial performance (learning a route through a city) with TD adults, but they did find an indirect relationship.”
Influential
What working memory subcomponents are needed in the acquisition of survey knowledge? Evidence from direction estimation and shortcut tasks
Labate, E., Pazzaglia, F., & Hegarty, M. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.11.007 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Spatial cognition, mobility, and reproductive success in northwestern Namibia
Vashro, L., & Cashdan, E. (2015) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.09.009 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“The direct link between any one spatial-cognitive task and any one navigation task is weak, especially when the navigation task does not use a novel environment (Wolbers & Hegarty, 2010; Pearson & Ialongo, 1986; Allen et al., 1996; Montello et al., 2004).”
Background
Sex Differences in Using Spatial and Verbal Abilities Influence Route Learning Performance in a Virtual Environment: A Comparison of 6- to 12-Year Old Boys and Girls
Merrill, E. C., Yang, Y., Roskos, B., & Steele, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00258 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“First, Allen et al. (1996) had young adult participants complete object-based spatial ability scales (e.g., cube comparisons), perspective-taking tasks (e.g., recognize whether photo slides were taken from particular locations in a model-sized environment), and route learning tasks with both small…”
Background
Route and survey processing of topographical memory during navigation
Corazzini, L. L., Nésa, M.-P., Ceccaldi, M. P., Guedj, É., Thinus‐Blanc, C., Cauda, F., D’Agata, F., & Péruch, P. (2010) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-010-0276-5 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Spatial cognition, navigation, and mobility among children in a forager-horticulturalist population, the Tsimané of Bolivia
Davis, H. E., & Cashdan, E. (2019) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2019.100800 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“evidence indicates that perspective-taking is more directly related to navigational ability than is mental rotation (Allen et al., 1996; Kozhevnikov, Motes, Rasch, & Blajenkova, 2006).”
Background
The role of spatial abilities and self-assessments in cardinal point orientation across the lifespan
Meneghetti, C., Borella, E., Pastore, M., & de Beni, R. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.07.006 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Objective and self-assessment measures of spatial skills were recorded because of their relevance to environment orientation performance tasks, which has been clearly demonstrated in young adults (Allen et al., 1996; Hegarty et al., 2006), and suggested by some evidence in older adults too (Kirasic, 2000; Meneghetti,…”
Result
Spatial ability at two scales of representation: A meta-analysis
Wang, L., Cohen, A. S., & Carr, M. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.10.006 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Mental rotation training: transfer and maintenance effects on spatial abilities
Meneghetti, C., Borella, E., & Pazzaglia, F. (2015) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0644-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“…to be collected by administering tasks that assess other dynamic abilities and other spatial dimensions to ascertain whether the improvement in the spatial dynamic dimension really does stem from a transfer of object-based to subject-based rotation abilities (as suggested by Allen et al., 1996).”
Background
The relationship between spatial abilities and representations of large-scale space in children—a structural equation modeling analysis
Quaiser-Pohl, C. M., Lehmann, W., & Eid, M. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00071-0 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The role of visuo‐spatial abilities in environment learning from maps and navigation over the adult lifespan
Muffato, V., Meneghetti, C., & Béni, R. D. (2019) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12384 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Learning from navigation, and tasks assessing its accuracy: The role of visuospatial abilities and wayfinding inclinations
Meneghetti, C., Miola, L., Toffalini, E., Pastore, M., & Pazzaglia, F. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101614 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The role of working memory in spatial text processing: What benefit of imagery strategy and visuospatial abilities?
Gyselinck, V., Meneghetti, C., Béni, R. D., & Pazzaglia, F. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.08.002 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Short-term memory, executive control, and children’s route learning
Purser, H. R. M., Farran, E. K., Courbois, Y., Lemahieu, A., Mellier, D., Sockeel, P., & Blades, M. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.005 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Individual differences in spatial text processing: High spatial ability can compensate for spatial working memory interference
Meneghetti, C., Gyselinck, V., Pazzaglia, F., & Béni, R. D. (2009) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.07.007 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“The particular relevance of mental rotation ability to environmental learning has also been pointed out in a number of studies; this ability alone (Fields & Shelton, 2006) or together with other visuo-spatial skills (Allen et al., 1996; Hegarty et al., 2006) positively influences the construction of a spatial mental r…”
BackgroundInfluential
Evaluation of Wayfinding Aids in Virtual Environment
Wu, A., Zhang, W., & Zhang, X. (2009) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447310802537582 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…strong correlation between the scores of spatial ability tests and participants’ wayfinding performance (e.g., Rovine & Weisman, 1989), some literature repeatedly reported the connection (Allen, Kirasic, Dobson, Long, & Beck, 1996; Blajenkova, Motes, & Kozhevnikov, 2005; Thorndyke & Goldin, 1981).”
Background
Use of Knowledge and Heuristics for Wayfinding in an Artificial Environment
Murakoshi, S., & Kawai, M. (2000) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00139160021972784 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Allen, Kirasic, Dobson, Long, and Beck (1996) showed that perspective taking and spatial sequential memory both contribute to environmental knowing.”
Background
Relationship among Environmental Pointing Accuracy, Mental Rotation, Sex, and Hormones
Bell, S., & Saucier, D. M. (2004) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916503251470 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Identifying Locations and Directions on Field and Representational Mapping Tasks: Predictors of Success
Liben, L. S., Myers, L. J., & Christensen, A. E. (2010) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1080/13875860903568550 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Illustrative is research in which participants are given “walks” or “drives” via slides or video recorded in real or scale-model environments (e.g., Allen et al., 1996; Walsh, Krauss, & Regnier, 1981), asked to navigate through desktop environments presented on a computer screen (e.g.,…”
Background
The role of perspective in locating position in a real‐world, unfamiliar environment
Iachini, T., & Logie, R. H. (2003) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.904 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Allen et al., 1996; Byrne, 1979; Cornell & Hay, 1984; Ga ¨rling et al., 1986; Passini, 1984).”
Assessing human reorientation ability inside virtual reality environments: the effects of retention interval and landmark characteristics
Bosco, A., Picucci, L., Caffò, A. O., Lancioni, G. E., & Gyselinck, V. (2008) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-008-0210-6 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“cognition comes from Allen et al. (1996) who found that a spatial sequential, short term, memory task mediated the 300 Cogn Process (2008) 9:299–309”
Background
Spatial perspective taking: Effects of social, directional, and interactive cues
Gunalp, P., Moossaian, T., & Hegarty, M. (2019) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00910-y · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self‐ratings of sense of direction and route reversal performance
Heth, C. D., Cornell, E. H., & Flood, T. L. (2002) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.795 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Learning a map of environment: The role of visuo‐spatial abilities in young and older adults
Meneghetti, C., Fiore, F., Borella, E., & Béni, R. D. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1788 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Differential Brain Activity in Regions Linked to Visuospatial Processing During Landmark-Based Navigation in Young and Healthy Older Adults
Ramanoël, S., Durteste, M., Bécu, M., Habas, C., & Arleo, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.552111 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Notably, perspective-taking, mental rotation, and visuospatial memory are important abilities for spatial learning and the dynamic manipulation of sensory information during navigation (Allen et al., 1996; Kozhevnikov et al., 2006; Meneghetti et al., 2018; Muffato et al., 2020).”
Background
Which one helps tourists most? Perspectives of international tourists using different navigation aids
Chang, H. H. (2015) · Tourism Geographies · doi:10.1080/14616688.2015.1016099 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
How did you get here from there? Verbal overshadowing of spatial mental models
Fiore, S. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2002) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.921 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“In addition, although a number of studies investigating the development of spatial mental models attempt to account for various individual differences as they relate to spatial ability (e.g. ‘Hidden Figures Test’), verbal ability is rarely considered (e.g. Allen et al., 1996).”
Background
The advantage of globally visible landmarks for spatial learning
Credé, S., Thrash, T., Hölscher, C., & Fabrikant, S. I. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101369 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
SPATIAL COGNITION AND SCALE: A CHILD'S PERSPECTIVE
Bell, S. (2002) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1006/jevp.2002.0250 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
A Mechanistic Approach to Individual Differences in Spatial Learning, Memory, and Navigation
Shelton, A. L., Marchette, S. A., & Furman, A. J. (2013) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-407187-2.00006-x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
The Role of Attention in Spatial Learning during Simulated Route Navigation
Albert, W., Reinitz, M. T., Beusmans, J. M. H., & Gopal, S. (1999) · Environment and Planning A Economy and Space · doi:10.1068/a311459 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Perspective taking as virtual navigation? Perceptual simulation of what others see reflects their location in space but not their gaze
Ward, E., Ganis, G., McDonough, K. L., & Bach, P. (2020) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104241 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
The WALKABOUT: Using virtual environments to assess large-scale spatial abilities
Waller, D. A. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.02.022 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Such an ability is closely akin to an aptitude often referred to as ‘‘perspective taking,’’ (Hegarty & Waller, in press b; Huttenlocher & Presson, 1979; Kozhevnikov & Hegarty, 2001; Piaget & Inhelder, 1967) and is thought to be associated with the ability to acquire a flexible ‘‘survey’’ representation of an environme…”
Background
Locating Oneself on a Map in Relation to Person Qualities and Map Characteristics
Liben, L. S., Myers, L. J., & Kastens, K. A. (2008) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-87601-4_14 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Earlier investigators have addressed the relation between spatial abilities and success in learning large-scale spatial layouts [18,22].”
Background
Learning from maps: the role of visuo‐spatial working memory
Coluccia, E. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1357 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Age-differences in environment route learning: The role of input and recall-test modalities in young and older adults
Meneghetti, C., Borella, E., Gyselinck, V., & Béni, R. D. (2012) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.04.006 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Considering spatial ability in virtual route learning in early aging
Gyselinck, V., Meneghetti, C., Bormetti, M., Orriols, É., Piolino, P., & Béni, R. D. (2013) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-013-0557-1 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Not all is lost in older adults' route learning: The role of visuo-spatial abilities and type of task
Muffato, V., Meneghetti, C., & Béni, R. D. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.07.003 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Spatial mental representations derived from spatial descriptions: The predicting and mediating roles of spatial preferences, strategies, and abilities
Meneghetti, C., Ronconi, L., Pazzaglia, F., & Béni, R. D. (2013) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12038 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Individual differences in large-spaces orientation: g and beyond?
Juan-Espinosa, M., Abad, F. J., Colom, R., & Fernández-Truchaud, M. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00179-8 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Mental representations derived from navigation: The role of visuo-spatial abilities and working memory
Meneghetti, C., Zancada-Menéndez, C., Sampedro‐Piquero, P., López, L., Martinelli, M., Ronconi, L., & Rossi, B. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.07.002 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Spatial Perspective-Taking in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: The Predictive Role of Visuospatial and Motor Abilities
Cardillo, R., Erbì, C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00208 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Given the strong impact of spatial perspective-taking abilities on people’s everyday functioning – in environment learning (Allen et al., 1996; Pazzaglia and De Beni, 2006), navigation and wayfinding (Kozhevnikov et al.”
Background
Cognitive Efficiency and Fitness-to-Drive along the Lifespan: The Mediation Effect of Visuospatial Transformations
Tinella, L., Lopez, A., Caffò, A. O., Nardulli, F., Grattagliano, I., & Bosco, A. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11081028 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“[31] although they were considerably different from those of another similar research study [32] that found that perspective-taking does not mediate the effects of mental rotation on environmental learning outcomes.”
Result
The relationship between object-based spatial ability and virtual navigation performance
Garg, T., Velasco, P. F., Patai, E. Z., Malcolm, C. P., Kovalets, V., Bohbot, V. D., Coutrot, A., Hegarty, M., Hornberger, M., & Spiers, H. J. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0298116 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“This is a pattern discussed in past research exploring the relation between small-scale spatial abilities and large-scale wayfinding ability (Allen et al., 1996; Hegarty et al., 2006).”
Background
Improving Spatial Skills: An Orienteering Experience in Real and Virtual Environments with First Year Engineering Students
González, C., Martín‐Gutiérrez, J., Domínguez, M. G., Hernán-Pérez, A. S., & Carrodeguas, C. M. (2013) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2013.11.054 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Task Routing and Assignment in Crowdsourcing based on Cognitive Abilities
Gonçalves, J., Feldman, M., Hu, S., Kostakos, V., & Bernstein, A. (2017) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3041021.3055128 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The tests have been used in various domains such as multimedia learning, Alzheimer's disease research, decisionmaking, or human spatial cognition [1,37,51,58].”
Method
Different Abilities Controlled by Visuospatial Processing
Castro-Alonso, J., & Atit, K. (2019) · Visuospatial Processing for Education in Health and Natural Sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_2 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The role of visuo-spatial abilities in recall of spatial descriptions: A mediation model
Meneghetti, C., Béni, R. D., Pazzaglia, F., & Gyselinck, V. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.07.015 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The joint role of spatial ability and imagery strategy in sustaining the learning of spatial descriptions under spatial interference
Meneghetti, C., Béni, R. D., Gyselinck, V., & Pazzaglia, F. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.021 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Development of an Everyday Spatial Behavioral Questionnaire
Eliot, J. F., & Czarnolewski, M. Y. (2007) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.3200/genp.134.3.361-381 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“What was unusual about Allen et al.’s (1996) study was the fact that they attempted to relate performance on traditional spatial tests and experimental tasks with performance on environmental tasks.”
Linguistic and Cultural Universality of the Concept of Sense-of-Direction
Montello, D. R., & Xiao, D. (2011) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23196-4_15 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“abilities across the full range of everyday and specialized real-world tasks that people perform [3, 4, 5, 6].”
Background
Functional Families of Spatial Abilities: Poor Relations and Rich Prospects
Allen, G. L. (2003) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1207/s15327574ijt0303_4 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Second, a general psychometric spatial factor is consistently identified, and this factor can be distinguished from general intelligence per se (Allen et al., 1996; Juan-Espinosa et al., 2000; Kirasic, 2001; Richardson et al., 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Navigation Experience and Mental Representations of the Environment: Do Pilots Build Better Cognitive Maps?
Sutton, J. E., Buset, M., & Keller, M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090058 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Allen, Kirasic, Dobson, Long, and Beck (1996) [29] found some support for perspective taking ability as a mediator of general spatial ability and accuracy on a heading estimation task similar to the JRD.”
Result
The Dissociation of Small- and Large-Scale Spatial Abilities in School-Age Children
Jansen, P. (2009) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.109.2.357-361 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Virtual Navigation Performance: The Relationship to Field of View and Prior Video Gaming Experience
Richardson, A. E., & Collaer, M. (2011) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/22.24.pms.112.2.477-498 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…vestibular, and kinesthetic information are available during travel, and most people find this infor - mation sufficient for navigation, although substantial individual differ - ences exist (Allen, Kirasic, Dobson, Long, & Beck, 1996; Hegarty, Mon - tello, Richardson, Ishikawa, & Lovelace, 2006).”
Background
Mental representations derived from spatial descriptions: the influence of orientation specificity and visuospatial abilities
Meneghetti, C., Pazzaglia, F., & Béni, R. D. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0560-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Visuospatial abilities have a central role in environmental learning (e.g. Allen et al., 1996), even when information is conveyed verbally (e.g. Bosco, Filomena , Sardone, Scalisi, & Longoni, 1996; Pazzaglia, 2008; Meneghetti et al., 2009).”
Background
Time will not help unskilled observers to understand a cluttered spatial scene
Tenbrink, T., Bergmann, E., Hertzberg, C., & Gondorf, C. (2016) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1080/13875868.2016.1143474 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The format of the cognitive map depends on the structure of the environment.
Peer, M., Nadar, C., & Epstein, R. A. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001498 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…the ability to mentally track location and heading might depend on perspective taking ability, which we found to be correlated to the individual differences in our task, in line with previous studies (Allen et al., 1996; Fields & Shelton, 2006; Kozhevnikov et al., 2006; Schinazi et al., 2013).”
Result
THE NATURE AND USE OF ROUTE EXPECTANCIES FOLLOWING INCIDENTAL LEARNING
Cornell, E. H., Heth, C. D., & Skoczylas, M. J. (1999) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1006/jevp.1999.0136 · Cited by 19 · see citing works

The relationship between spatial ability and environmental knowledge
Pearson, J. L., & Ialongo, N. S. (1986) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0272-4944(86)80003-2 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning
Mary Hegarty, A., Montello, D. R., Richardson, A. E., Toru Ishikawa, D., & Kristin Lovelace, A. (2005)
Functional Families of Spatial Abilities: Poor Relations and Rich Prospects
Allen, G. L. (2003) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1207/s15327574ijt0303_4 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Ecological Relevance of Four Psychometric Measures of Spatial Ability.
Pearson, J. L., & Ialongo, N. S. (1984) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Development of a self-report measure of environmental spatial ability
Hegarty, M. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00116-2 · Cited by 1,023 · see citing works

Authors: Allen, G. L., Kirasic, K. C., Dobson, S. H., Long, R. G., & Beck, S.
Affiliations: University of South Carolina (US)
Atlanta VA Medical Center (US)
Corresponding author: Allen, Gary L.
Venue: Intelligence
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1996-05
Volume: 22
Issue: 3
Pages: 327-355
ISSN: 0160-2896 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0160-2896(96)90026-4
OpenAlex: W2027776299
Cited by: 194
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 3.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Intelligence (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geography Education and Pedagogy
Keywords: environmental learning, spatial ability, mediation, Big Five personality traits

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Predicting environmental learning from spatial abilities: An indirect route

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks