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Gender differences in worry and associated cognitive-behavioral variables
Abstract
Research has shown that there is a significant gender difference in the worry report of women and men, with women often reporting more worry than men. The present study investigated this phenomenon by looking at gender differences in cognitive variables associated with worry; namely, intolerance of uncertainty, negative problem orientation, positive beliefs about worry, and cognitive avoidance. The sample consisted of 217 female and 100 male university students who completed six questionnaires assessing worry and associated cognitive variables. Women reported more worry than men on two measures of the tendency to worry, as well as more worries about lack of confidence issues. Women also reported a more negative problem orientation and engaging in more thought suppression, a type of cognitive avoidance. Thought suppression and negative orientation were found to make a significant contribution to the prediction of worry scores. Moreover, when both variables were controlled, the significant prediction of gender to worry disappeared. Hypotheses accounting for gender differences in thought suppression and negative problem orientation are discussed.
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“Third, several studies have reported higher levels of worry in females than in males (Molina & Borkovec, 1994;Robichaud, Dugas & Conway, 2003;Rodríguez-Biglieri & Vetere, 2011;Dugas, Freeston, & Ladouceur, 1997)”
From The Argentinian version of the cognitive fusion questionnaire: Psychometric properties and the role of cognitive fusion as a predictor of pathological worry (2022) · cites this paper as Robichaud, Dugas & Conway, 2003
In the citing paper
“Studies indicate that women often exhibit higher levels of IU [108] and score higher in constructs related to health anxiety and IU [109,110], showing a stronger relationship between IU and negative future orientation.”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [108]
In the citing paper
“Research into gender differences in the cognitive processes influencing GAD in the adult population demonstrates that women report relatively higher levels NPO and thought suppression, which is a type of CA (Robichaud et al., 2003).”
From Applicability of the intolerance of uncertainty model to Generalized Anxiety Disorder symptoms in young people (2021) · cites this paper as Robichaud et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“This was partially consistent with the findings of Robichaud et al. (2003), who reported relatively higher levels of CA and NPO in adult females, but that the correlation between PBW and worry was stronger in males than females.”
From Applicability of the intolerance of uncertainty model to Generalized Anxiety Disorder symptoms in young people (2021) · cites this paper as Robichaud et al. (2003)
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“For example it has been shown that women have a more negative problem orientation then men (Robichaud et al., 2003) and have more unfocused worries which are not necessarily connected to recent stressful events.”
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“Actually, female patients of depression are more likely to have anxiety and/or memory deficit, compared with men [2, 71, 72].”
BackgroundThe Epidemiology of Worry and Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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“These results are in agreement with previous research, which has been largely inconclusive with regard to the relationship of worry and most demographic categories (Brown et al., 1992; Golden et al., 2011; Robichaud et al., 2003; Tallis Table 2.”
ResultFayyaz, W., & Kamal, A. (2014) · Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research · Cited by 7
A Bizonytalanságintolerancia Skála rövidített változatának magyar nyelvű adaptációja
András, Z. N., Arató, N., Inhóf, O., Budai, T., Pakai-Stecina, D. T., & Lábadi, B. (2021) · Mentálhigiéné és Pszichoszomatika · doi:10.1556/0406.22.2021.003 · Cited by 8
A comparative study of stress and mental health among Argentinean and Swedish medical students
(2010) · The Internet Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5580/9ee · Cited by 6
“A Canadian study of undergraduate university students, showed that the propensity to worry, especially over issues of confidence in oneself, was more common among female [30].”
BackgroundAnxiety and the Onset of COVID-19: Examining Concerns of Historically Excluded Scholars
Ramos, J. M., Scalera, J. E., Fattore, C., & Breuning, M. (2021) · International Studies Perspectives · doi:10.1093/isp/ekab017 · Cited by 6
Translation and Validation of Mental Health Inventory
Khan, M. J., Hanif, R., & Tariq, N. (2015) · Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research · Cited by 6
설승원, & Oh, K.-J. (2008) · The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.15842/kjcp.2008.27.1.013 · Cited by 6
Beesdo‐Baum, K., & Hilbert, K. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13060-6_1 · Cited by 7
Cognitive Distortions as Trauma-Specific Irrational Beliefs Among Burn Patients
Zare, Z., Sadeghi‐Bazargani, H., Ekman, D. S., Ranjbar, F., Ekman, R., Farahbakhsh, M., & Maghsoudi, H. (2019) · Journal of Burn Care & Research · doi:10.1093/jbcr/irz026 · Cited by 6
Correlates of Perceived Insecurity: Evidence from Pakistan
Nasir, M., & Rehman, F. U. (2017) · Defence and Peace Economics · doi:10.1080/10242694.2017.1362628 · Cited by 6
“The reason may be that women are emotionally more sensitive when it comes to fear, depression, and anxiety (see, for instance, Robichaud, Dugas, and Conway 2003).”
BackgroundCognitive Avoidance Questionnaire: Factor structure and psychometric properties.
Latorre, J. M., López, M. N., Payeras, M., Ros, L., Heras, J., & Ricarte, J. J. (2020) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.397711 · Cited by 6
Suppressing and Priming the Motivation for Motherhood
Boucai, L., & Karniol, R. (2008) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9489-0 · Cited by 6
“Importantly, people often attempt to suppress their unwanted thoughts (e.g., Erdelyi and Goldberg 1978; Wegner and Zanakos 1994) and thought suppression is more prevalent in women than men (e.g., Blumberg 2000; Robichaud et al. 2003 ).”
BackgroundIntolerance of Uncertainty, Negative Problem Orientation on Worry
Suh, H. R., & Lee, B.-K. (2018) · Korean Journal of Stress Research · doi:10.17547/kjsr.2018.26.4.350 · Cited by 5
“걱정과 관련된 다양한 변인들 중 불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족(Intolerance of Uncertainty)은 걱정이 발생되고 지속 되는 데 보다 중요한 요인으로 주목받고 있다(Robichaud et al., 2003; Butzer et al., 2006; Berenbaum et al., 2008).”
Zheng, L. R., Naurin, E., Markstedt, E., Olander, P., Lindén, K., Sengpiel, V., Stolle, D., & Elden, H. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115362 · Cited by 5
Profile and Financial Behaviour of Crypto Adopters – Evidence from Macedonian Population Survey
Levkov, N., Bogoevska-Gavrilova, I., & Trajkovska, M. (2022) · South East European Journal of Economics and Business · doi:10.2478/jeb-2022-0022 · Cited by 5
Mattioni, L., Spada, M. M., Ferri, F., & Sestieri, C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-46713-9 · Cited by 6
“Finally, female volunteers have reported increased concerns related to self-confidence, a more negative approach to problem-solving, and greater engagement in thought inhibition 61 , particularly among Italian university students 85 .”
BackgroundGender Differences in Suppression Based on Type of Emotion
Martin, R. M. (2024) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2024.156052 · Cited by 5
Pretorius, C., Walker, S. P., & Esterhuyse, K. G. F. (2015) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0081246314567890 · Cited by 5
“While not of practical significance, this finding suggests that the commonly reported tendency for women to worry more than men (Olatunji et al., 2007; Robichaud et al., 2003) seems to hold true within a multi-ethnic context.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBarlett, N. D., & Barlett, C. P. (2018) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-018-9302-4 · Cited by 6
Worry and Rumination: Measurement Invariance Across Gender
Carter, J. A. (2021) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/91e0-6588 · Cited by 5
Löve, J., Dellve, L., Eklöf, M., & Hagberg, M. (2009) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckn131 · Cited by 5
Health and ill health in working women – balancing work and recovery
Schwarz, U. V. T. (2008) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 5
Household Economic Decisions Under the Shadow of TerrorismPreprint
Christelis, D., & Georgarakos, D. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1317086 · Cited by 5
Kraemer, K. M., O'Bryan, E. M., Johnson, A. L., & McLeish, A. C. (2017) · Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/08897077.2017.1340394 · Cited by 4
Safety in Prison: A Review of the Literature and Theoretical Exploration
Martens, S., Palmen, H. M. H., & Nieuwbeerta, P. (2025) · International Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/10575677251372901 · Cited by 4
“Early explanations came from researchers who pointed out the higher vulnerability of women, elderly and poor people (Hale, 1996), though these characteristics are likely only distal proxies of vulnerability (Jackson, 2009; Robichaud et al., 2003).”
Thought intrusion among adults living with complex regional pain syndrome.
Lohnberg, J. A., & ALTMAIER, E. M. (2014) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035945 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Robichaud, M., Dugas, M. J., & Conway, M.
- Affiliations
- Concordia University (CA)
- Hôpital du Sacré-Cœur de Montréal (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Dugas, Michel J
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 501-516
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1989990228
- Cited by
- 298
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 3.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- gender differences, worry, intolerance of uncertainty, negative problem orientation, cognitive avoidance, thought suppression, university students
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Avoidance Learning, Cognition, Cross-Sectional Studies, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Personality Inventory, Problem Solving, Students
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