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Gender differences in worry and associated cognitive-behavioral variables
Abstract
Research has shown that there is a significant gender difference in the worry report of women and men, with women often reporting more worry than men. The present study investigated this phenomenon by looking at gender differences in cognitive variables associated with worry; namely, intolerance of uncertainty, negative problem orientation, positive beliefs about worry, and cognitive avoidance. The sample consisted of 217 female and 100 male university students who completed six questionnaires assessing worry and associated cognitive variables. Women reported more worry than men on two measures of the tendency to worry, as well as more worries about lack of confidence issues. Women also reported a more negative problem orientation and engaging in more thought suppression, a type of cognitive avoidance. Thought suppression and negative orientation were found to make a significant contribution to the prediction of worry scores. Moreover, when both variables were controlled, the significant prediction of gender to worry disappeared. Hypotheses accounting for gender differences in thought suppression and negative problem orientation are discussed.
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“Third, several studies have reported higher levels of worry in females than in males (Molina & Borkovec, 1994;Robichaud, Dugas & Conway, 2003;Rodríguez-Biglieri & Vetere, 2011;Dugas, Freeston, & Ladouceur, 1997)”
From The Argentinian version of the cognitive fusion questionnaire: Psychometric properties and the role of cognitive fusion as a predictor of pathological worry (2022) · cites this paper as Robichaud, Dugas & Conway, 2003
In the citing paper
“Studies indicate that women often exhibit higher levels of IU [108] and score higher in constructs related to health anxiety and IU [109,110], showing a stronger relationship between IU and negative future orientation.”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [108]
In the citing paper
“Research into gender differences in the cognitive processes influencing GAD in the adult population demonstrates that women report relatively higher levels NPO and thought suppression, which is a type of CA (Robichaud et al., 2003).”
From Applicability of the intolerance of uncertainty model to Generalized Anxiety Disorder symptoms in young people (2021) · cites this paper as Robichaud et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“This was partially consistent with the findings of Robichaud et al. (2003), who reported relatively higher levels of CA and NPO in adult females, but that the correlation between PBW and worry was stronger in males than females.”
From Applicability of the intolerance of uncertainty model to Generalized Anxiety Disorder symptoms in young people (2021) · cites this paper as Robichaud et al. (2003)
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“Still, there is only limited information about gender differences in IU, suggesting that although women tend to worry more than men, IU levels are not significantly different based on gender (97).”
BackgroundCognitive emotion regulation strategies: Gender differences and associations to worry
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“Consistent with previous studies (Marcotte, Alain, & Gosselin, 1999; Maydeu-Olivares et al., 2000; Robichaud et al., 2003 ), girls showed a greater tendency to expect problems to be unsolvable and to doubt their”
ResultClancy, F., Prestwich, A., Caperon, L., Tsipa, A., & O’Connor, D. B. (2020) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2019.1700819 · Cited by 165
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“For example, thought suppression, a dimension of cognitive avoidance, has been found to correlate positively with intolerance of uncertainty in one study in a non-clinical population [17].”
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“For instance, a number of studies have demonstrated that women score higher on indices of worry (Robichaud et al. 2003) and psychological stress (Day and Livingstone 2003) than do men.”
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“Some of the apparent differences in emotional style may depend on personal dispositions, relating to trait affectivity, ruminative tendencies and so on (eg, Robichaud, Dugas, & Conway, 2003 ), but they can also emerge as crystallised responses to a relationship partner's actual or perceived regulatory style.”
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“negative outcome expectancies because correlations indicate that women tend to worry more than men(71,77,100,110) and are possibly more oriented towards problems.(100) Future research is”
BackgroundApplicability of a cognitive model of worry to children and adolescents
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“This finding is consistent with gender differences found in studies of worry in the general population [38].”
ResultPsychometric properties of a Dutch version of the intolerance of uncertainty scale
de Bruin, G. O., Rassin, E., van der Heiden, C., & Muris, P. (2006) · Netherlands Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf03061055 · Cited by 72
“These results are consistent with research by Robichaud, Dugas, and Conway (2003) who have demonstrated that IU does not differ between males and females, and that there seems to be no differential association between IUS scores and worry for both genders.”
ResultKiesswetter, M., Marsoner, H., Luehwink, A., Fistarol, M., Mahlknecht, A., & Duschek, S. (2019) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2018.1564897 · Cited by 74
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Age and gender differences in adolescent worry
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“This across-age gender difference in predicting and explaining worry and preventative actions is intriguing in light of research showing that female children and adults have more frequent and intense worries (see Ollendick et al., 1989; Robichaud et al., 2003), more often perceive risk in ambiguous situations (Dugas,…”
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Human sex differences in solving a virtual navigation problem
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“Finally, sex differences have been observed for both rumination and worry (Johnson & Whisman, 2013; Robichaud et al., 2003).”
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The spectrum of worry in the community-dwelling elderly
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“Our finding that women are more likely to suffer from GAD than men bears out a large body of previous research (Carter, Wittchen, Pfister, & Kessler, 2001 ; Lindesay et al, 2006 ; Mehta et al, 2003 ; Robichaud, Dugas, & Conway, 2003 ; Schaub & Linden, 2000 ).”
BackgroundResultConceptualization, measurement and correlates of dementia worry: A scoping review
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“Women have also been reported to have higher levels of neurotic traits (Goodwin and Gotlib, 2004), to report more worry and negative problem orientation (Robichaud et al., 2003), and suffer more of anxiety disorders (Kessler et al.”
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Positive beliefs about worry: A psychometric evaluation of the Why Worry-II
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“We also found that male students reported less coronavirus worry than female students, which is consistent with prior findings of gender differences in worry (Bottesi et al., 2018; Robichaud et al., 2003) and with recent evidence that female university students experienced greater anxiety and stress during the pandemi…”
ResultAnderson, R. J., Goddard, L., & Powell, J. H. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9169-3 · Cited by 47
“This research has consistently linked depression, anxiety and worry with poor problem orientation (e.g. Haugh 2006; Kant et al. 1997; Marx et al. 1992; Robichaud et al. 2003).”
BackgroundResultHearn, C. S., Donovan, C. L., Spence, S. H., March, S., & Holmes, M. C. (2017) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-016-0703-y · Cited by 42
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“For example, Turner (1990) reported that husbands did not differ from wives in their experience of marital uncertainty, and Robichaud, Dugas, and Conway (2003) did not observe gender differences for intolerance of uncertainty.”
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Schwarz, U. V. T. (2011) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00440.x · Cited by 47
Prevalence of Personality Disorders in a General Population Among Men and Women
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“…are more emotional; they have a tendency toward negative affectivity, more frequently experience fear and higher anxiety than men, use negative strategies for solving problems, have positive attitudes toward anxiety, and use cognitive avoidance (Ben-Zur & Zeidner, 1988; Robichaud & Dugas, 2002).”
BackgroundAn Investigation of Factors Associated with Cognitive Avoidance in Worry
Sexton, K. A., & Dugas, M. J. (2009) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9177-3 · Cited by 50
“For the most part, however, past research findings regarding worryrelated processes conducted in nonclinical populations (e.g., Robichaud et al. 2003 ) have been found to apply to clinical populations as well (e.g., Dugas et al. 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHuntley, C. D., Young, B., Smith, C. T., Jha, V., & Fisher, P. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00710-7 · Cited by 45
“As females typically report greater test anxiety [3], worry, anxiety, and associated beliefs [45], independent t-tests examined for gender differences in independent (IUS-12, MCQ-30) and dependent (TAI) variables.”
BackgroundThe Penn State Worry Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the Korean version
Lim, Y.-J., Kim, Y.-H., Lee, E.-H., & Kwon, S.-M. (2008) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20356 · Cited by 54
“These phenomena were explained by the fact that women endorsed a more negative problem orientation and engaged in more thought suppression [Robichaud et al., 2003].”
BackgroundLinking cognitive avoidance and GAD symptoms: The mediating role of fear of emotion.
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“This result was expected based on past research findings that females tend to report greater levels of anxiety and worry than their male counterparts (cf. Robichaud et al. 2003 ).”
ResultSokoli, E., Hildebrandt, H., & Gomez, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.905680 · Cited by 44
“The often observed gender effect on MPA is in agreement with the broader literature showing greater vulnerability of females than males for anxiety, worry, and stress (Robichaud et al., 2003; Matud, 2004; Bandelow and Michaelis, 2015).”
ResultMansueto, G., Palmieri, S., Marino, C., Caselli, G., Sassaroli, S., Ruggiero, G. M., Nikčević, A. V., & Spada, M. M. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2767 · Cited by 38
Ren, L., Yang, Z., Wang, Y., Cui, L.-B., Jin, Y., Ma, Z., Zhang, Q., Wu, Z., Wang, H.-N., & Yang, Q. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02849-w · Cited by 33
“Research shows that women and men report significant gender differences in their worry and associated cognitive variables [55, 56].”
BackgroundDuval, P., Aschan-Leygonie, C., & Moro, C. V. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1239874 · Cited by 33
“Higher knowledge and concern in women could be explained by the fact that women are more anxious about health problematics and, in general, exhibit more responsibility than men regarding ‘care’ (56–59).”
BackgroundNolting, I. K. L., Nexhmedin Morina, B., Hoppen, T. H., Tam, K., & Kip, A. (2025) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2025.2476809 · Cited by 38
“Other contexts have found significant higher prevalence of GAD and worrying for women vs. men (Robichaud et al., 2003).”
The Relationship Between Worry and Dimensions of Anxiety Symptoms in Children and Adolescents
Rabner, J. C., Mian, N. D., Langer, D. A., Comer, J. S., & Pincus, D. B. (2016) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465816000448 · Cited by 33
“This may be due to the larger percentage of females in our sample compared with Pestle and colleagues’ sample, with women in general having been found to frequently report more worry than men (Robichaud et al., 2003).”
ResultPeasley‐Miklus, C., McLeish, A. C., Schmidt, N. B., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.11.037 · Cited by 32
Factor structure, validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the Cambridge Worry Scale
Monge, F. J. C., Peñacoba, C., Marín‐Morales, D., & Abellán, I. C. (2011) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2010.11.006 · Cited by 32
“Gender differences also have been found, as various studies indicate that women worry more than men (Robichaud et al., 2003)”
ResultPredictors of music performance anxiety in conservatory students
Lupiáñez, M., Ortiz, F. D. P., Vila, J. G., & Muñoz, M. (2021) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356211032290 · Cited by 33
“In general, female respondents report more worries and disturbing thoughts during performances in comparison to males (Oudejans et al., 2017; Robichaud et al., 2003).”
Exploring the thoughts and attentional focus of music students under pressure
Oudejans, R. R. D., Spitse, A., Kralt, E., & Bakker, F. C. (2016) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735616656790 · Cited by 37
Medical students’ career decision-making stress during clinical clerkships
Fris, D. A. H., Vianen, A. E. M. V., Koen, J., de Hoog, M., & de Pagter, A. P. J. (2022) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-022-00734-8 · Cited by 31
Olatunji, B. O., Schottenbauer, M. A., Rodriguez, B. F., Glass, C. R., & Arnkoff, D. B. (2006) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.08.005 · Cited by 31
Worries in expectant parents: Its relation with perinatal well‐being and relationship satisfaction
Biehle, S. N., & Mickelson, K. D. (2011) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01335.x · Cited by 31
Responsibility to continue thinking and worrying: Evidence of incremental validity
Sugiura, Y. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.08.001 · Cited by 33
de Bruin, G. O., Muris, P., & Rassin, E. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.015 · Cited by 29
Kleppang, A. L., Steigen, A. M., & Finbråten, H. S. (2020) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-020-01373-5 · Cited by 30
Donovan, C. L., Holmes, M. C., & Farrell, L. J. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.003 · Cited by 28
Semantic and Affective Verbal Fluency: Sex Differences
Gawda, B., & Szepietowska, E. M. (2013) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/28.21.pr0.113x17z3 · Cited by 28
“…more frequently experience fear and anxiety than men, they may be less able to tolerate uncertainty, more frequently use negative strategies for solving problems, have positive attitudes toward anxiety, and more frequently use cognitive avoidance as a coping strategy ( Robichaud & Dugas, 2002 ).”
BackgroundRowa, K., Waechter, S., Hood, H. K., & Antony, M. M. (2017) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1002/9781394258949.ch4 · Cited by 33
You, J., & Leung, F. (2012) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9256-3 · Cited by 26
“They also have a more negative problem orientation and engage in more thought suppression (Robichaud et al. 2003).”
BackgroundJansen, P., Hoja, S., & Meneghetti, C. (2021) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2021.1909243 · Cited by 30
“As well as in rumination, women express more worries than men (Robichaud et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGezie, L. D., Worku, A., Gete, Y. K., Azale, T., Brand, T., & Zeeb, H. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health Systems · doi:10.1186/s13033-018-0241-z · Cited by 25
Predictive Big Data Analytics using the UK Biobank Data
Zhou, Y., Zhao, L., Zhou, N., Zhao, Y., Marino, S., Wang, T., Sun, H., Toga, A. W., & Dinov, I. D. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-41634-y · Cited by 25
Davey, G. C. L., Meeten, F., & Field, A. P. (2021) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-021-10270-0 · Cited by 24
Gendered mobility and activity pattern: implications for gendered mental health
Wang, D., & Yang, M. (2023) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103639 · Cited by 25
Metadata
- Authors
- Robichaud, M., Dugas, M. J., & Conway, M.
- Affiliations
- Concordia University (CA)
- Hôpital du Sacré-Cœur de Montréal (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Dugas, Michel J
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 501-516
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1989990228
- Cited by
- 298
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 3.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- gender differences, worry, intolerance of uncertainty, negative problem orientation, cognitive avoidance, thought suppression, university students
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Avoidance Learning, Cognition, Cross-Sectional Studies, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Personality Inventory, Problem Solving, Students
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