The role of working memory in motor learning and performance
Abstract
Three experiments explore the role of working memory in motor skill acquisition and performance. Traditional theories postulate that skill acquisition proceeds through stages of knowing, which are initially declarative but later procedural. The reported experiments challenge that view and support an independent, parallel processing model, which predicts that procedural and declarative knowledge can be acquired separately and that the former does not depend on the availability of working memory, whereas, the latter does. The behaviour of these two processes was manipulated by providing or withholding visual (and auditory) appraisal of outcome feedback. Withholding feedback was predicted to inhibit the use of working memory to appraise success and, thus, prevent the formation of declarative knowledge without affecting the accumulation of procedural knowledge. While the first experiment failed to support these predictions, the second and third experiments demonstrated that procedural and declarative knowledge can be acquired independently. It is suggested that the availability of working memory is crucial to motor performance only when the learner has come to rely on its use.
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Certain motor learning paradigms suggest that increased cognitive load can enhance long-term retention and transfer, such as in dual-task training or implicit learning approaches.
“Indeed, certain motor learning paradigms suggest that increased cognitive load can enhance long-term retention and transfer, such as in dual-task training or implicit learning approaches [14].”
From Teaching a single manual therapy technique at a time reduces cognitive load in physiotherapy students: a randomized controlled educational study (2025) · cites this paper as [14]
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- Authors
- Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., & Eves, F. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Maxwell, J.P
- Venue
- Consciousness and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-09
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 376-402
- ISSN
- 1053-8100 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1969732797
- Cited by
- 272
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 3.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Consciousness and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong) (submittedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Sports and Physical Education Research
- Keywords
- working memory, motor learning, motor skill learning, procedural knowledge, declarative knowledge, parallel processing model, outcome feedback, motor performance
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Biomechanical Phenomena, Female, Golf, Humans, Learning, Male, Memory, Motor Skills, Task Performance and Analysis, Feedback, Psychological
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