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Cited by 187Child Nutrition and Water AccessWater Resource Management and QualityPublic Health and Environmental Issues

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Mapping geographical inequalities in access to drinking water and sanitation facilities in low-income and middle-income countries, 2000-17

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Deshpande, Aniruddha, Miller-Petrie, Molly K, Lindstedt, Paulina A, Baumann, Mathew M, Johnson, Kimberly B, Blacker, Brigette F, Abbastabar, Hedayat, Abd-Allah, Foad, Abdelalim, Ahmed, Abdollahpour, Ibrahim, Abegaz, Kedir Hussein, Abejie, Ayenew Negesse, Abreu, Lucas Guimarães, Abrigo, Michael R.M., Abualhasan, Ahmed, Accrombessi, Manfred Mario Kokou, Adamu, Abdu A, Adebayo, Oladimeji M, Adedeji, Isaac Akinkunmi, Adedoyin, Rufus Adesoji, Adekanmbi, Victor, Adetokunboh, Olatunji O, Adhikari, Tara Ballav, Afarideh, Mohsen, Agudelo-Botero, Marcela, Ahmadi, Mehdi, Ahmadi, Keivan, Ahmed, Muktar Beshir, Ahmed, Anwar E, Akalu, Temesgen Yihunie, Akanda, Ali S, Alahdab, Fares, Al-Aly, Ziyad, Alam, Samiah, Alam, Noore, Alamene, Genet Melak, Alanzi, Turki M, Albright, James, Albujeer, Ammar, Alcalde-Rabanal, Jacqueline Elizabeth, Alebel, Animut, Alemu, Zewdie Aderaw, Ali, Muhammad, Alijanzadeh, Mehran, Alipour, Vahid, Aljunid, Syed Mohamed, Almasi, Ali, Almasi-Hashiani, Amir, Al-Mekhlafi, Hesham M, Altirkawi, Khalid A, Alvis-Guzman, Nelson, Alvis-Zakzuk, Nelson J., Amini, Saeed, Amit, Arianna Maever L., Amul, Gianna Gayle Herrera, Andrei, Catalina Liliana, Anjomshoa, Mina, Ansariadi, Ansariadi, Antonio, Carl Abelardo T., Antony, Benny, Antriyandarti, Ernoiz, Arabloo, Jalal, Aref, Hany Mohamed Amin, Aremu, Olatunde, Armoon, Bahram, Arora, Amit, Aryal, Krishna K, Arzani, Afsaneh, Asadi-Aliabadi, Mehran, Asmelash, Daniel, Atalay, Hagos Tasew, Athari, Seyyede Masoume, Athari, Seyyed Shamsadin, Atre, Sachin R, Ausloos, Marcel, Awasthi, Shally, Awoke, Nefsu, Ayala Quintanilla, Beatriz Paulina, Ayano, Getinet, Ayanore, Martin Amogre, Aynalem, Yared Asmare, Azari, Samad, Azman, Andrew S, Babaee, Ebrahim, Badawi, Alaa, Bagherzadeh, Mojtaba, Bakkannavar, Shankar M, Balakrishnan, Senthilkumar, Banach, Maciej, Banoub, Joseph Adel Mattar, Barac, Aleksandra, Barboza, Miguel A, Bärnighausen, Till Winfried, Basu, Sanjay, Bay, Vo Dinh, Bayati, Mohsen, Bedi, Neeraj, Beheshti, Mahya, Behzadifar, 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DOI 10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30278-3PMC PMC7443708
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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Universal access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities is an essential human right, recognised in the Sustainable Development Goals as crucial for preventing disease and improving human wellbeing. Comprehensive, high-resolution estimates are important to inform progress towards achieving this goal. We aimed to produce high-resolution geospatial estimates of access to drinking water and sanitation facilities. METHODS: We used a Bayesian geostatistical model and data from 600 sources across more than 88 low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) to estimate access to drinking water and sanitation facilities on continuous continent-wide surfaces from 2000 to 2017, and aggregated results to policy-relevant administrative units. We estimated mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subcategories of facilities for drinking water (piped water on or off premises, other improved facilities, unimproved, and surface water) and sanitation facilities (septic or sewer sanitation, other improved, unimproved, and open defecation) with use of ordinal regression. We also estimated the number of diarrhoeal deaths in children younger than 5 years attributed to unsafe facilities and estimated deaths that were averted by increased access to safe facilities in 2017, and analysed geographical inequality in access within LMICs. FINDINGS: Across LMICs, access to both piped water and improved water overall increased between 2000 and 2017, with progress varying spatially. For piped water, the safest water facility type, access increased from 40·0% (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 39·4-40·7) to 50·3% (50·0-50·5), but was lowest in sub-Saharan Africa, where access to piped water was mostly concentrated in urban centres. Access to both sewer or septic sanitation and improved sanitation overall also increased across all LMICs during the study period. For sewer or septic sanitation, access was 46·3% (95% UI 46·1-46·5) in 2017, compared with 28·7% (28·5-29·0) in 2000. Although some units improved access to the safest drinking water or sanitation facilities since 2000, a large absolute number of people continued to not have access in several units with high access to such facilities (>80%) in 2017. More than 253 000 people did not have access to sewer or septic sanitation facilities in the city of Harare, Zimbabwe, despite 88·6% (95% UI 87·2-89·7) access overall. Many units were able to transition from the least safe facilities in 2000 to safe facilities by 2017; for units in which populations primarily practised open defecation in 2000, 686 (95% UI 664-711) of the 1830 (1797-1863) units transitioned to the use of improved sanitation. Geographical disparities in access to improved water across units decreased in 76·1% (95% UI 71·6-80·7) of countries from 2000 to 2017, and in 53·9% (50·6-59·6) of countries for access to improved sanitation, but remained evident subnationally in most countries in 2017. INTERPRETATION: Our estimates, combined with geospatial trends in diarrhoeal burden, identify where efforts to increase access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities are most needed. By highlighting areas with successful approaches or in need of targeted interventions, our estimates can enable precision public health to effectively progress towards universal access to safe water and sanitation. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

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Figure 1 Access to drinking water and sanitation indicators The mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive indicators modelled for water and sanitation. Each set of indicators collectively account for 100% of the population in the respective geographical area. The water indicators (piped on premises or piped off premises [piped], other improved, unimproved, and surface water) and the sanitation indicators (sewer or septic, other improved, unimproved, and open defecation) are outlined along with each indicator's corresponding facility types. Facility types are categorised into the standardised indicators as defined by the WHO–UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme to ensure concordance with global monitoring targets and comparability across locations.
Figure 1 Access to drinking water and sanitation indicators The mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive indicators modelled for water and sanitation. Each set of indicators collectively account for 100% of the population in the respective geographical area. The water indicators (piped on premises or piped off premises [piped], other improved, unimproved, and surface water) and the sanitation indicators (sewer or septic, other improved, unimproved, and open defecation) are outlined along with each indicator's corresponding facility types. Facility types are categorised into the standardised indicators as defined by the WHO–UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme to ensure concordance with global monitoring targets and comparability across locations.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Access to piped water and sewer or septic sanitation at the second-administrative-unit level, 2000 and 2017 Access was modelled with use of model-based geostatistics for continuous continent-wide surfaces and aggregated to the second administrative level. The results for piped water are shown for years 2000 (A) and 2017 (B). The results for sewer or septic sanitation are also shown for 2000 (C) and 2017 (D). Maps reflect administrative boundaries, land cover, lakes, and population; dark grey-coloured grid cells were classified as barren or sparsely vegetated and had fewer than ten people per 1 × 1-km grid cell, or were not included in these analyses.38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43Interactive visualisation tools are available online.
Figure 2 Access to piped water and sewer or septic sanitation at the second-administrative-unit level, 2000 and 2017 Access was modelled with use of model-based geostatistics for continuous continent-wide surfaces and aggregated to the second administrative level. The results for piped water are shown for years 2000 (A) and 2017 (B). The results for sewer or septic sanitation are also shown for 2000 (C) and 2017 (D). Maps reflect administrative boundaries, land cover, lakes, and population; dark grey-coloured grid cells were classified as barren or sparsely vegetated and had fewer than ten people per 1 × 1-km grid cell, or were not included in these analyses.38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43Interactive visualisation tools are available online.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Water and sanitation facility types used at the second-administrative-unit level, 2000 and 2017 The co-distribution of improved, unimproved, and no facility access is shown for water for 2000 (A) and 2017 (B) and sanitation for 2000 (C), and 2017 (D). Green denotes second administrative-level units where most of the population (>60%) had access to improved facilities, blue denotes a more than 60% reliance on unimproved facilities, and red denotes more than 60% relying or surface water in A and B or practicing open defecation in C and D. Yellow indicates that there was no single dominant facility type used by more than 60% of the unit's population. Maps reflect administrative boundaries, land cover, lakes, and population; dark grey-coloured grid cells were classified as barren or sparsely vegetated and had fewer than ten people per 1 × 1-km grid cell, or were not included in these analyses.38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43
Figure 3 Water and sanitation facility types used at the second-administrative-unit level, 2000 and 2017 The co-distribution of improved, unimproved, and no facility access is shown for water for 2000 (A) and 2017 (B) and sanitation for 2000 (C), and 2017 (D). Green denotes second administrative-level units where most of the population (>60%) had access to improved facilities, blue denotes a more than 60% reliance on unimproved facilities, and red denotes more than 60% relying or surface water in A and B or practicing open defecation in C and D. Yellow indicates that there was no single dominant facility type used by more than 60% of the unit's population. Maps reflect administrative boundaries, land cover, lakes, and population; dark grey-coloured grid cells were classified as barren or sparsely vegetated and had fewer than ten people per 1 × 1-km grid cell, or were not included in these analyses.38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Effect of changes in access to water and sanitation in 2017 on child diarrhoeal deaths at the second-administrative-unit level Deaths are calculated under the counterfactual scenario in which access to safe water and sanitation remained at the values observed in the year 2000. The number of deaths attributed given access levels observed in 2017 is shown for water (A) and sanitation (C). The number of deaths averted (shown in green) or caused (shown in purple) in 2017 due to changes in access levels compared with 2000 is shown for water (B) and sanitation (D). Maps reflect administrative boundaries, land cover, lakes, and population; dark grey-coloured grid cells were classified as barren or sparsely vegetated and had fewer than ten people per 1 × 1-km grid cell, or were not included in these analyses.38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43
Figure 4 Effect of changes in access to water and sanitation in 2017 on child diarrhoeal deaths at the second-administrative-unit level Deaths are calculated under the counterfactual scenario in which access to safe water and sanitation remained at the values observed in the year 2000. The number of deaths attributed given access levels observed in 2017 is shown for water (A) and sanitation (C). The number of deaths averted (shown in green) or caused (shown in purple) in 2017 due to changes in access levels compared with 2000 is shown for water (B) and sanitation (D). Maps reflect administrative boundaries, land cover, lakes, and population; dark grey-coloured grid cells were classified as barren or sparsely vegetated and had fewer than ten people per 1 × 1-km grid cell, or were not included in these analyses.38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Geographical inequality in access to improved water and sanitation Persistence of geographical inequality in access to improved facility types for water and sanitation and changes since 2000 are shown. Each bar's height plots the level of access to improved water and sanitation, from the lowest to the highest access second administrative-level unit in 2000 (grey) and 2017 (coloured by region). Mean access at the national level is shown as grey dots. Colours correspond to Global Burden of Disease regions. Countries not shown were excluded from the study due to limited data availability. CAF=Central African Republic. COD=Democratic Republic of Congo. COG=Republic of Congo. DOM=Dominican Republic. GNQ=Equatorial Guinea. PNG=Papua New Guinea.
Figure 5 Geographical inequality in access to improved water and sanitation Persistence of geographical inequality in access to improved facility types for water and sanitation and changes since 2000 are shown. Each bar's height plots the level of access to improved water and sanitation, from the lowest to the highest access second administrative-level unit in 2000 (grey) and 2017 (coloured by region). Mean access at the national level is shown as grey dots. Colours correspond to Global Burden of Disease regions. Countries not shown were excluded from the study due to limited data availability. CAF=Central African Republic. COD=Democratic Republic of Congo. COG=Republic of Congo. DOM=Dominican Republic. GNQ=Equatorial Guinea. PNG=Papua New Guinea.CC BY · PubMed Central

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  1. Luby, 2018, Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Bangladesh: a cluster randomised controlled trial, Lancet Glob Health, 6, e302, 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30490-4 · DOI · Paper page

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Deshpande, A., Miller-Petrie, M. K., Lindstedt, P. A., Baumann, M. M., Johnson, K. B., Blacker, B. F., Abbastabar, H., Abd-Allah, F., Abdelalim, A., Abdollahpour, I., Abegaz, K. H., Abejie, A. N., Abreu, L. G., Abrigo, M. R. M., Abualhasan, A., Accrombessi, M. M. K., Adamu, A. A., Adebayo, O. M., Adedeji, I. A., Adedoyin, R. A., Adekanmbi, V., Adetokunboh, O. O., Adhikari, T. B., Afarideh, M., Agudelo-Botero, M., Ahmadi, M., Ahmadi, K., Ahmed, M. B., Ahmed, A. E., Akalu, T. Y., Akanda, A. S., Alahdab, F., Al-Aly, Z., Alam, S., Alam, N., Alamene, G. M., Alanzi, T. M., Albright, J., Albujeer, A., Alcalde-Rabanal, J. E., Alebel, A., Alemu, Z. A., Ali, M., Alijanzadeh, M., Alipour, V., Aljunid, S. M., Almasi, A., Almasi-Hashiani, A., Al-Mekhlafi, H. M., Altirkawi, K. A., Alvis-Guzman, N., Alvis-Zakzuk, N. J., Amini, S., Amit, A. M. L., Amul, G. G. H., Andrei, C. L., Anjomshoa, M., Ansariadi, A., Antonio, C. A. T., Antony, B., Antriyandarti, E., Arabloo, J., Aref, H. M. A., Aremu, O., Armoon, B., Arora, A., Aryal, K. K., Arzani, A., Asadi-Aliabadi, M., Asmelash, D., Atalay, H. T., Athari, S. M., Athari, S. S., Atre, S. R., Ausloos, M., Awasthi, S., Awoke, N., Ayala Quintanilla, B. P., Ayano, G., Ayanore, M. A., Aynalem, Y. A., Azari, S., Azman, A. S., Babaee, E., Badawi, A., Bagherzadeh, M., Bakkannavar, S. M., Balakrishnan, S., Banach, M., Banoub, J. A. M., Barac, A., Barboza, M. A., Bärnighausen, T. W., Basu, S., Bay, V. D., Bayati, M., Bedi, N., Beheshti, M., Behzadifar, M., Behzadifar, M., Bejarano Ramirez, D. F., Bell, M. L., Bennett, D. A., Benzian, H., Berbada, D. A., Bernstein, R. S., Bhat, A. G., Bhattacharyya, K., Bhaumik, S., Bhutta, Z. A., Bijani, A., Bikbov, B., Bin Sayeed, M. S., Biswas, R. K., Bohlouli, S., Boufous, S., Brady, O. J., Briko, A. N., Briko, N. I., Britton, G. B., Brown, A., Burugina Nagaraja, S., Butt, Z. A., Cámera, L. A., Campos-Nonato, I. R., Campuzano Rincon, J. C., Cano, J., Car, J., Cárdenas, R., Carvalho, F., Castañeda-Orjuela, C. A., Castro, F., Cerin, E., Chalise, B., Chattu, V. K., Chin, K. L., Christopher, D. J., Chu, D.-T., Cormier, N. M., Costa, V. M., Cromwell, E. A., Dadi, A. F. F., Dahiru, T., Dahlawi, S. M. A., Dandona, R., Dandona, L., Dang, A. K., Daoud, F., Darwesh, A. M., Darwish, A. H., Daryani, A., Das, J. K., Das Gupta, R., Dash, A. P., Dávila-Cervantes, C. A., Davis Weaver, N., De la Hoz, F. P., De Neve, J.-W., Demissie, D. B., Demoz, G. T., Denova-Gutiérrez, E., Deribe, K., Desalew, A., Dharmaratne, S. D., Dhillon, P., Dhimal, M., Dhungana, G. P., Diaz, D., Dipeolu, I. O., Do, H. T., Dolecek, C., Doyle, K. E., Dubljanin, E., Duraes, A. R., Edinur, H. A., Effiong, A., Eftekhari, A., El Nahas, N., El Sayed Zaki, M., El Tantawi, M., Elhabashy, H. R., El-Jaafary, S. I., El-Khatib, Z., Elkout, H., Elsharkawy, A., Enany, S., Endalew, D. A., Eshrati, B., Eskandarieh, S., Etemadi, A., Ezekannagha, O., Faraon, E. J. A., Fareed, M., Faro, A., Farzadfar, F., Fasil, A. F., Fazlzadeh, M., Feigin, V. L., Fekadu, W., Fentahun, N., Fereshtehnejad, S.-M., Fernandes, E., Filip, I., Fischer, F., Flohr, C., Foigt, N. A., Folayan, M. O., Foroutan, M., Franklin, R. C., Frostad, J. J., Fukumoto, T., Gad, M. M., Garcia, G. M., Gatotoh, A. M., Gayesa, R. T., Gebremedhin, K. B., Geramo, Y. C. D., Gesesew, H. A., Gezae, K. E., Ghashghaee, A., Ghazi Sherbaf, F., Gill, T. K., Gill, P. S., Ginindza, T. G., Girmay, A., Gizaw, Z., Goodridge, A., Gopalani, S. V., Goulart, B. N. G., Goulart, A. C., Grada, A., Green, M. S., Gubari, M. I. M., Gugnani, H. C., Guido, D., Guimarães, R. A., Guo, Y., Gupta, R., Gupta, R., Ha, G. H., Haagsma, J. A., Hafezi-Nejad, N., Haile, D. H., Haile, M. T., Hall, B. J., Hamidi, S., Handiso, D. W., Haririan, H., Hariyani, N., Hasaballah, A. I., Hasan, M. M., Hasanzadeh, A., Hassen, H. Y., Hayelom, D. H., Hegazy, M. I., Heibati, B., Heidari, B., Hendrie, D., Henok, A., Herteliu, C., Heydarpour, F., Hidru, H. D. D., Hird, T. R., Hoang, C. L., Hollerich, G. I., Hoogar, P., Hossain, N., Hosseinzadeh, M., Househ, M., Hu, G., Humayun, A., Hussain, S. A., Hussen, M. A. A., Ibitoye, S. E., Ilesanmi, O. S., Ilic, M. D., Imani-Nasab, M. H., Iqbal, U., Irvani, S. S. N., Islam, S. M. S., Ivers, R. Q., Iwu, C. J., Jahanmehr, N., Jakovljevic, M., Jalali, A., Jayatilleke, A. U., Jenabi, E., Jha, R. P., Jha, V., Ji, J. S., Jonas, J. B., Jozwiak, J. J., Kabir, A., Kabir, Z., Kanchan, T., Karch, A., Karki, S., Kasaeian, A., Kasahun, G. G., Kasaye, H. K., Kassa, G. G., Kassa, G. M., Kayode, G. A., Kebede, M. M., Keiyoro, P. N., Ketema, D. B., Khader, Y. S., Khafaie, M. A., Khalid, N., Khalilov, R., Khan, E. A., Khan, J., Khan, M. N., Khatab, K., Khater, M. M., Khater, A. M., Khayamzadeh, M., Khazaei, M., Khosravi, M. H., Khubchandani, J., Kiadaliri, A., Kim, Y. J., Kimokoti, R. W., Kisa, S., Kisa, A., Kochhar, S., Kolola, T., Komaki, H., Kosen, S., Koul, P. A., Koyanagi, A., Krishan, K., Kuate Defo, B., Kugbey, N., Kumar, P., Kumar, G. A., Kumar, M., Kusuma, D., La Vecchia, C., Lacey, B., Lal, A., Lal, D. K., Lam, H., Lami, F. H., Lansingh, V. C., Lasrado, S., Lebedev, G., Lee, P. H., LeGrand, K. E., Leili, M., Lenjebo, T. L., Leshargie, C. T., Levine, A. J., Lewycka, S., Li, S., Linn, S., Liu, S., Lopez, J. C. F., Lopukhov, P. D., Magdy Abd El Razek, M., Mahadeshwara Prasad, D. R., Mahasha, P. W., Mahotra, N. B., Majeed, A., Malekzadeh, R., Malta, D. C., Mamun, A. A., Manafi, N., Mansournia, M. A., Mapoma, C. C., Martinez, G., Martini, S., Martins-Melo, F. R., Mathur, M. R., Mayala, B. K., Mazidi, M., McAlinden, C., Meharie, B. G., Mehndiratta, M. M., Mehrabi Nasab, E., Mehta, K. M., Mekonnen, T., Mekonnen, T. C., Meles, G. G., Meles, H. G., Memiah, P. T. N., Memish, Z. A., Mendoza, W., Menezes, R. G., Mereta, S. T., Meretoja, T. J., Mestrovic, T., Metekiya, W. M., Metekiya, W. M., Miazgowski, B., Miller, T. R., Mini, G., Mirrakhimov, E. M., Moazen, B., Mohajer, B., Mohammad, Y., Mohammad, D. K., Mohammad Gholi Mezerji, N., Mohammadibakhsh, R., Mohammed, S., Mohammed, J. A., Mohammed, H., Mohebi, F., Mokdad, A. H., Moodley, Y., Moradi, M., Moradi, G., Moradi-Joo, M., Moraga, P., Morales, L., Mosapour, A., Mosser, J. F., Mouodi, S., Mousavi, S. M., Mozaffor, M., Munro, S. B., Muriithi, M. K., Murray, C. J. L., Musa, K. I., Mustafa, G., Muthupandian, S., Naderi, M., Nagarajan, A. J., Naghavi, M., Naik, G., Nangia, V., Nascimento, B. R., Nazari, J., Ndwandwe, D. E., Negoi, I., Netsere, H. B., Ngunjiri, J. W., Nguyen, C. T., Nguyen, H. L. T., Nguyen, Q. P., Nigatu, S. G., Ningrum, D. N. A., Nnaji, C. A., Nojomi, M., Norheim, O. F., Noubiap, J. J., Oancea, B., Ogbo, F. A., Oh, I.-H., Olagunju, A. T., Olusanya, J. O., Olusanya, B. O., Onwujekwe, O. E., Ortega-Altamirano, D. V., Osarenotor, O., Osei, F. 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A., Yu, C., Yusefzadeh, H., Zadey, S., Zahirian Moghadam, T., Zaidi, Z., Zaman, S. B., Zamani, M., Zandian, H., Zar, H. J., Zerfu, T. A., Zhang, Y., Ziapour, A., Zodpey, S., Zuniga, Y. M. H., Hay, S. I., & Reiner, R. C.
Affiliations
University of Washington (US)
Corresponding author
Reiner, Robert C
ORCID
Venue
The Lancet Global Health
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2020-09
Volume
8
Issue
9
Pages
e1162-e1185
ISSN
2214-109X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30278-3
PMC
PMC7443708
OpenAlex
W3071879207
Cited by
187
References
53
Citations by year
2026: 26 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 2
FWCI
14.95
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
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Funders
  • Aksum University
  • National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation
  • Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI17/00719)
  • Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung
  • Wellcome Trust
  • Public Health Agency of Canada
  • Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais
  • Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior
  • Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación
  • Secretaria Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (SFRH/BHD/110001/2015, UID/MULTI/04378/2019, UID/QUI/50006/2019)
  • Department of Health and Social Care
  • Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa
  • Manipal Academy of Higher Education
  • Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
  • Chandigarh University
  • National Institute for Health and Care Research
  • British Heart Foundation
  • Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
  • Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
  • Ministarstvo Prosvete, Nauke i Tehnološkog Razvoja (175087)
  • Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India
  • European Commission
  • National Heart Foundation of Australia
  • National Research Foundation
  • South African Medical Research Council
  • University Grants Commission
  • Deakin University (OI175014)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (201900/Z/16/Z, DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006)
  • Fogarty International Center (D43-TW009775)
  • Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1132415)
  • European Regional Development Fund (P_40_382)
  • National Institutes of Health (R01-HD084233)
  • National Institute on Aging (P01-AG041710)
  • National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01-AI112339, R01-AI124389)
  • NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre
  • Sistema Nacional de Investigadores
  • Research Management Centre, International Islamic University Malaysia
  • Debre Markos University
  • Defence Science Institute
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Child Nutrition and Water Access
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Public Health and Environmental Issues
Keywords
drinking water access, sanitation facilities, regional disparities, low- and middle-income countries, piped water, open defecation, surface water, SDG 6, sub-Saharan Africa, urban-rural disparities
MeSH terms
Bayes Theorem, Developing Countries, Diarrhea, Humans, Sanitation, Socioeconomic Factors, Models, Statistical, Drinking Water, Geographic Mapping

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