Building a Foundation: A Retrospective on NAGPRA Collections Compliance 1990–1995

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another 15 years passed before disposition regulations were finalized.

“Another 15 years passed before they were finalized.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

An additional 56 museums were granted extensions for inventories.

“An additional 56 museums were granted extensions.”

May combine two claims.

Many federal agencies with large collections did not submit inventories by the deadline, a fact realized by the Review Committee and later detailed in a Government Accountability Office report.

“Additionally, there were many federal agencies with large collections that did not submit inventories by the deadline, a fact that was quickly realized by the Review Committee (NAGPRA Review Committee 1996a) and later detailed in a Government Accountability Office (2010) report.”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1996aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Government Accountability Office 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The final NAGPRA regulations went into effect on January 3, 1996, more than three years after the summary deadline and nearly two months after the inventory deadline.

“After much discussion, public comment, and revision, the final regulations (DOI 1995) went into effect on January 3, 1996, more than three years after the deadline for summaries (November 16, 1993) and nearly two months after the deadline for inventories (November 16, 1995;McKeown 2013).”

• cites DOI 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites McKeown 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Over 100 more summaries were received within another year; some may have been completed by the deadline but not provided to the DOI because it was not required by law.

“Over 100 more were received within another year; some may have been completed by the deadline but not provided to the DOI because it was not required by law (Chari and Lavallee 2013:10; NAGPRA Review Committee 1994a:3).”

• cites Chari and Lavallee 2013:10Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1994a:3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 1993 guidance was distributed to more than 1,200 museums, federal agencies, and Tribes.

“The guidance was distributed to more than 1,200 museums, federal agencies, and Tribes (NAGPRA Review Committee 1993b:5).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1993b:5Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A lack of funding presented a barrier to NAGPRA implementation.

“a lack of funding presented a barrier to implementation”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

NAGPRA required significant expenditures by museums, federal agencies, and Tribes.

“NAGPRA required significant expenditures by museums, federal agencies, and Tribes”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The expenses of NAGPRA were numerous and included staff.

“The expenses were numerous and included staff”

May combine two claims.

There are striking parallels between the early years of NAGPRA work and ongoing work under the 2024 regulations, including tight deadlines, requirements not previously contemplated by practitioners, and a changing understanding of what it means to comply with the law.

“There are striking parallels between the early years of NAGPRA work and ongoing work under the 2024 regulations (Department of the Interior [DOI] 2024), such as tight deadlines, requirements that were not previously contemplated by practitioners, and the changing understanding of what it means to comply with the law.”

• cites Department of the Interior [DOI] 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 was a radical break from the status quo in archaeological and museum practices, introducing new legal responsibilities for the identification and repatriation of Native American Ancestors and cultural items.

“The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA; United States Code 1990) was a radical break from the status quo in archaeological and museum practices, introducing a new set of legal responsibilities for the identification and repatriation of Native American Ancestors and cultural items.”

• cites United States Code 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The statutory deadlines necessitated that solutions be developed quickly.

“The statutory deadlines necessitated that solutions be developed quickly.”

May combine two claims.

The professional standards, capacity to do the work, and state of collections were not aligned with NAGPRA, creating numerous challenges and unexpected barriers for the first generation of practitioners implementing the law.

“The professional standards, capacity to do the work, and state of collections were not aligned with NAGPRA, creating numerous challenges and unexpected barriers as the first generation of practitioners worked to implement this new law.”

May combine two claims.

The early work included inventories and summaries and the cataloging they required, work with professional codes that needed updating, capacity-building in staff, funding, and processes, and opening dialogue between museums, federal agencies, and Tribes.

“These include the inventories and summaries that were generated and the cataloging of collections and records that they required; working with professional codes that needed updating to reflect a new responsibility and work ethic; capacity-building in terms of staff, funding, and processes; and the opening of a dialogue between museums, federal agencies, and Tribes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the 1990s, museum ethics were deeply rooted in a commitment to public service, with institutions focused on collecting, preserving, and interpreting the world's diverse cultural and natural heritage.

“In the 1990s, museum ethics were deeply rooted in a commitment to public service, with institutions focused on collecting, preserving, and interpreting the world's diverse cultural and natural heritage (American Association of Museums 1994).”

• cites American Association of Museums 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Reasons for the delay in NAGPRA regulations included a government-wide moratorium on new regulations, insufficient funding, ambiguities in the law, and lengthy draft reviews.

“Minutes of the NAGPRA Review Committee provide information on reasons for the delay, including a government-wide moratorium on new regulations, insufficient funding, ambiguities in the law, and lengthy draft reviews (e.g., NAGPRA Review Committee 1992a:3, 1995a:5).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1992a:3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1995a:5Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It remains unclear how many museums should have reported collections but did not.

“However, it remains unclear how many museums should have reported collections but did not.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Society for American Archaeology established ethical guidelines in 1961 addressing methods, ethics, and training in archaeology.

“The Society for American Archaeology (SAA) established ethical guidelines in 1961 to address key issues in the field, including methods, ethics, and training in archaeology.”

• cites Society for American Archaeology [SAA] 1961Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The deadline for NAGPRA regulations proved impracticable because the regulations could not be completed without participation by the NAGPRA Review Committee, yet funds to establish the committee were not available until October 1991.

“The deadline proved impracticable, because the regulations could not be completed without participation by the NAGPRA Review Committee, yet funds to establish the committee were not available until October 1991.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 1991, the SAA initiated a review of its guidelines, leading to the creation of the SAA Principles of Archaeological Ethics in 1996.

“In 1991, the SAA initiated a review of these guidelines, leading to the creation of the SAA Principles of Archaeological Ethics in 1996.”

• cites SAA 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Older collections continue to suffer from neglect, underscoring the need for a more balanced and comprehensive approach to collections care.

“Older collections, in particular, continue to suffer from neglect, underscoring the need for a more balanced and comprehensive approach to collections care (e.g., Trimble and Marino 2003).”

• cites Trimble and Marino 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Despite 36 CFR 79, many institutions housing archaeological collections failed to meet even minimum guidelines, grappling with inadequate facilities, lack of security, insufficient staff, and poorly tracked or inaccessible collections.

“However, despite these efforts, many institutions housing archaeological collections failed to meet even these minimum guidelines, grappling with challenges such as inadequate facilities, lack of security, insufficient staff, and poorly tracked or inaccessible collections.”

• cites Trimble and Marino 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It was expected that more consultation, work, and time would lead to the identification of more cultural affiliations.

“It was expected that more consultation, work, and time would lead to the identification of more cultural affiliations (e.g., NAGPRA Review Committee 1995c:3-6).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1995c:3-6Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The implementation work of the early 1990s demonstrates that the work can get done, although it often has its own timeline not anticipated by the law or regulations.

“The implementation work of the early 1990s provides a framework for solving these problems by demonstrating that the work can get done, although it often has its own timeline that is not anticipated by the law or regulations;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2000, the American Association of Museums revised its code of ethics, incorporating changes primarily related to human remains, funerary objects, sacred items, and the growing number of competing ownership claims.

“In 2000, the American Association of Museums revised its code of ethics, incorporating changes primarily related to human remains, funerary objects, sacred items, and the growing number of competing ownership claims (American Association of Museums 2000).”

• cites American Association of Museums 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Only four states (Arizona, Hawaii, Kansas, and Nebraska) had reburial laws, and just a small number of museums had policies regarding the display or repatriation of human remains.

“Only four states (Arizona, Hawaii, Kansas, and Nebraska) had reburial laws (Trope and Echo-Hawk 1992:53), and just a small number of museums had policies regarding the display or repatriation of human remains (Boyd and Haas 1992:253).”

• cites Trope and Echo-Hawk 1992:53Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Boyd and Haas 1992:253Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There was a long-standing presumption that museums had rightful ownership of their collections, and stewardship was viewed as a profound public trust focused on preservation, documentation, and accessibility.

“There was a long-standing presumption that museums had rightful ownership of their collections.The stewardship of those collections was viewed as a profound public trust, with management of them focused on preservation, documentation, and accessibility that aligned with the institution's mission and public responsibilities (American Association of Museums 1984).”

• cites American Association of Museums 1984Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

As repatriation efforts progress, a significant challenge remains in reconciling past practices with contemporary ethical standards.

“As repatriation efforts progress, a significant challenge remains in reconciling past practices with contemporary ethical standards.”

May combine two claims.

Catalogs and accession records are frequently lacking in detail, and their contents are not always properly transcribed into working catalogs.

“Catalogs and accession records are frequently lacking in detail, and their contents are not always properly transcribed into working catalogs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The updated AAM code emphasized that decisions regarding sensitive matters should be handled with openness, seriousness, and respect for the dignity of all parties, and acknowledged the special nature of human remains and sacred objects.

“The updated code emphasized that decisions regarding these sensitive matters should be handled with openness, seriousness, and respect for the dignity of all parties.Acknowledging the special nature of human remains and sacred objects in decisions became important.”

• cites American Association of Museums 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The varying interpretations of NAGPRA underscored the need for regulations that provided clear, consistent guidelines and a common understanding of the law to prevent frustration, confusion, and misunderstandings that would undermine trust.

“The varying interpretations of the law underscored the need for a set of regulations that provided clear, consistent guidelines and a common understanding of the law to prevent frustration, confusion, and misunderstandings that would undermine trust.”

May combine two claims.

Another important measure of NAGPRA's early accomplishments lies in stories of successful repatriations, with numerous examples in newspaper articles, conference presentations, and scholarly publications.

“Another important measure of NAGPRA's early accomplishments lies in the stories of successful repatriations.Newspaper articles, conference presentations, and scholarly publications provide numerous examples of these successes and the progress made under the Act (e.g., Robbins 1999;West et al. 2000;Yellowman 1996).”

• cites Robbins 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites West et al. 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Yellowman 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

NAGPRA compliance heavily depends on context, but this information is often difficult to trace within museum records.

“NAGPRA compliance heavily depends on context, but this information is often difficult to trace within museum records.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Documentation regarding an object's history plays a significant role in understanding context.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1990, the DOI published 36 CFR 79, which outlined necessary standards for curation.

“In 1990, the DOI published 36 CFR 79, “Curation of Federally Owned and Administered Archeological Collections, ” which outlined necessary standards for curation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The development of relationships is key to successful NAGPRA compliance, as well as successful museum and curation work in general.

“and that the development of relationships is key to successful NAGPRA compliance, as well as successful museum and curation work in general.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Intense global competition among national, regional, and university museums led to an increase in the collection of materials from Indigenous communities.

“Intense global competition among national, regional, and university museums of anthropology and natural history led to an increase in the collection of materials from Indigenous communities (Krech 1999;Sturtevant 1999).”

• cites Krech 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sturtevant 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Many institutions lack the personnel, space, and resources to properly care for collections in perpetuity, putting preservation and access at risk.

“Many institutions lack the personnel, space, and resources to properly care for these collections “in perpetuity, ” putting preservation and access at risk (Childs 2004:v).”

• cites Childs 2004:vNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The preliminary guidance included discussion of key terms related to inventories and summaries, and these definitions were reiterated in a publication and used in the initial draft of the regulations.

“The guidance included discussion of key terms related to inventories and summaries (Table 1).The definitions of these terms were reiterated in a publication in the Arizona State Law Review (McManamon and Nordby 1992) and used in the initial draft of the regulations.”

• cites McManamon and Nordby 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Review Committee advocated an approach to first reduce the number of human remains and associated funerary objects on the culturally unaffiliated list and proposed a disposition process centered on regional consortia of Tribes, but regulations for disposition were reserved for future promulgation when final regulations were published in December 1995.

“The Review Committee advocated an approach that would first seek to reduce the number of human remains and associated funerary objects that were included on the culturally unaffiliated list.They proposed a disposition process that was centered on regional consortia of Tribes (e.g., NAGPRA Review Committee 1995b:9-10, 1995c:9), but regulations for disposition were reserved for future promulgation”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1995b:9-10Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1995c:9Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The 1986 SAA statement advocated determination of cultural affiliation based on evidence rather than assertions, and repatriation evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

“The statement advocated for a determination of cultural affiliation based on evidence rather than assertions, ensuring decisions are grounded in facts.Repatriation should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the varying levels of information available and the unique relationships contemporary Tribes have with the remains (SAA 1986).”

• cites SAA 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Archaeology has placed significant emphasis on excavation, often at the expense of utilizing existing collections for scientific and educational purposes.

“Additionally, archaeology has placed significant emphasis on excavation, often at the expense of utilizing existing collections for scientific and educational purposes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The SAA revisions emphasize collaboration, transparency, and respect for Indigenous and descendant communities, and highlight ethical conduct, collaborative spirit, and cultural respect that archaeologists must uphold.

“These revisions emphasize the importance of collaboration, transparency, and respect for Indigenous and descendant communities, and highlight the ethical conduct, collaborative spirit, and cultural respect that archaeologists must uphold in their work.”

• cites SAA 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites SAA 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Economic challenges faced by Tribal groups frequently led to the sale of cultural items as a means of income.

“Economic challenges faced by Tribal groups frequently led to the sale of cultural items as a means of income (Krech 1999;Sturtevant 1999).”

• cites Krech 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sturtevant 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The SAA revisions are grounded in ideal values and behaviors that all SAA members should aspire to, reflecting the collective voice of the membership.

“These revisions are grounded in ideal values and behaviors that all SAA members should aspire to, reflecting the collective voice of the membership.”

May combine two claims.

People can build the capacity for NAGPRA work, especially if given resources.

“that people can build the capacity for work, especially if given resources;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The 1986 SAA statement recognized ongoing direct communication between all stakeholders as crucial for fostering trust and mutual understanding, and dialogue promotes greater respect for differing viewpoints.

“The statement recognized that ongoing, direct communication between all stakeholders was crucial for fostering trust and mutual understanding.While agreement may not always be reached, such dialogue promotes greater respect for differing viewpoints (SAA 1986).”

• cites SAA 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Numerous studies and publications have underscored the ongoing nature of the curation crisis, highlighting the consequences of inadequate curation and management of collections.

“Numerous studies and publications have underscored the ongoing nature of this curation crisis, highlighting the consequences of inadequate curation and management of collections (Childs and Sullivan 2004;Ford 1977;General Accounting Office 1987;Lindsay et al. 1979Lindsay et al. , 1980;;Marquardt 1977Marquardt , 2004;;Marquardt et al. 1982).”

• cites Childs and Sullivan 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ford 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites General Accounting Office 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The 1996 SAA principles focused on stewardship, accountability, preventing commercialization, public education, respecting intellectual property, reporting and publication, and preservation of archaeological records, with the overarching goal to protect the archaeological record rather than building relationships with descendant communities.

“This updated framework focused on the responsibility of stewardship, stressing the importance of accountability, preventing commercialization, promoting public education and outreach, respecting intellectual property, ensuring proper reporting and publication, and maintaining the preservation of archaeological records.The overarching goal was to protect the archaeological record rather than”

• cites SAA 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The NAGPRA statute provided definitions for most terms and laid out a stepwise process for summaries and inventories.

“The statute provided definitions for most terms, and laid out a process for summaries and inventories in a stepwise progression.”

May combine two claims.

When NAGPRA was passed, there was no federal precedent and few state or institutional precedents.

“When NAGPRA was passed, there was no federal precedent and few state or institutional precedents.”

May combine two claims.

Nonetheless, museums, agencies, and Tribes worked in good faith to complete required summaries and inventories, publish notices, and begin repatriations.

“Nonetheless, they worked in good faith to complete the required summaries and inventories, publish notices, and begin repatriations (e.g., NAGPRA Review Committee 1993b, 1995a).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1993bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1995aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Like museums, the practice of archaeology is shaped by societal values, necessitating continuous review and revision of archaeological ethics.

“Like museums, the practice of archaeology is shaped by societal values, necessitating continuous review and revision of archaeological ethics to ensure they reflect these evolving values.”

May combine two claims.

There was a lack of awareness among federal agencies about what they owned and where it was located, an absence of adequate inventories in museums, and an urgent need for agencies and museums to act quickly to comply with NAGPRA.

“There was a lack of awareness among federal agencies about what they owned and where it was located, an absence of adequate inventories in museums, and an urgent need for agencies and museums to act quickly to address these shortcomings in order to comply with NAGPRA (Childs and Sullivan 2004).”

• cites Childs and Sullivan 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Today, the fields of museums, archives, and archaeology are influenced by practitioners advocating for cultural competency, collaboration, and data governance, striving to build stronger relationships with Tribal communities and foster more ethical and inclusive practices.

“Today, the fields of museums, archives, and archaeology are influenced by practitioners advocating for cultural competency, collaboration, and data governance, striving to build stronger relationships with Tribal communities, and fostering more ethical and inclusive practices (Autry Museum of the American West 2022; Engseth 2018; First Archivists Circle 2007; Global Digital Data Alliance 2019;”

• cites Autry Museum of the American West 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Engseth 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites First Archivists Circle 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Consideration of the voices and needs of the communities from which objects originated, ranging from Indigenous groups to other ethnic, religious, and community groups, was regarded.

“Consideration of the voices and needs of the communities from which these objects originated-ranging from Indigenous groups to other ethnic, religious, and community groups-was regarded (Association of Registrars and Collections Specialists 2021).”

• cites Association of Registrars and Collections Specialists 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The integration of Indigenous perspectives and a strong emphasis on cultural sensitivity are reshaping museum and archaeological practice, signaling a transformative era.

“The integration of Indigenous perspectives and a strong emphasis on cultural sensitivity are reshaping museum and archaeological practice.These changes signal a transformative era, where ethical stewardship encourages deeper community engagement and healing.”

May combine two claims.

The House report attributed the presence of Native American human remains and funerary objects in museums to looting of burial sites and the Army Surgeon General's 1868 order for collection of Native American skeletons for scientific inquiry, suggesting the House intended to address repatriation of human remains removed from burial sites, recent graves, or during military actions.

“The background section of the House report (US House of Representatives 1990) attributed the presence of Native American human remains and funerary objects in museums to the looting of Native American burial sites and the Army Surgeon General's 1868 order for the collection of Native American skeletons for scientific inquiry (Bieder 1990;Juzda 2009), suggesting that the House intended to address”

• cites US House of Representatives 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bieder 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Juzda 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The consultation process demonstrated the critical importance of relationship-building, which requires time and transparent communication, and cannot be rushed or based on incomplete information.

“Furthermore, the consultation process demonstrated the critical importance of relationship-building, which requires time and transparent communication, and cannot be rushed or based on incomplete information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Museums play a role in society grounded in the values society holds, and those values are reflected in museum ethics in curation, preservation, public programming, and education.

“Museums play a role in society that is grounded in the values that society holds.Those values are reflected in the ethics of museum organization and practice in the areas of curation, preservation, public programing, and education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The evolution of ethical standards for museums reflects shifting societal values and the growing complexity of museum operations.

“The evolution of ethical standards for museums reflects shifting societal values and the growing complexity of museum operations (see Table 2 for a comparison of ethical codes).”

May combine two claims.

The actions of collectors and dealers alienated valuable cultural material from Native communities, stripping items of their original cultural context and often depriving Tribes of their heritage.

“The actions of collectors and dealers during this period alienated much of the valuable cultural material from Native communities, stripping these items of their original cultural context and often depriving Tribes of their heritage (Krech 1999).”

• cites Krech 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While a great deal was accomplished by early NAGPRA practitioners, difficulties remained unresolved by the end of 1995, including lack of adequate support and how to include Tribes without federal recognition.

“While a great deal was accomplished by the early NAGPRA practitioners, there were difficulties that had not been resolved by the end of 1995.Many of these continue to present barriers to implementation, such as a lack of adequate support and how to include Tribes without federal recognition.”

May combine two claims.

Program staff compiled a list of culturally unidentified human remains and associated funerary objects for the Review Committee and began developing a database of summaries and inventories.

“Additionally, they compiled a list of culturally unidentified human remains and associated funerary objects for the Review Committee and began developing a database of summaries and inventories to support the committee's work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The collections care necessitated by NAGPRA marked a significant leap forward and laid the foundation for the work that continues today.

“As imperfect as it may have been, the collections care necessitated by NAGPRA marked a significant leap forward and laid the foundation for the work that continues today.”

May combine two claims.

The inventories and summaries generated through this process brought greater transparency and accountability to institutions, offering some long-awaited answers to Tribes seeking to locate their Ancestors and cultural items.

“The inventories and summaries generated through this process brought greater transparency and accountability to institutions, offering some long-awaited answers to Tribes seeking to locate their Ancestors and cultural items.”

May combine two claims.

Locating collections was crucial, as agencies were responsible for NAGPRA compliance regardless of where their collections were housed.

“However, locating these collections was crucial, as agencies were responsible for NAGPRA compliance regardless of where their collections were housed.”

May combine two claims.

The AAD received a large volume of documents, most of which were in paper form.

“The AAD received a large volume of documents, most of which were in paper form (NAGPRA Review Committee 1996b:17).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1996b:17Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

It was not until 2000 that additional staff were added to the program, adding significantly to the capacity of what is now known as the National NAGPRA Program.

“It was not until 2000 that additional staff were added to the program, adding significantly to the capacity of what is now known as the National NAGPRA Program (see Government Accountability Office [2010:12-13] for an overview of the office's history).”

• cites Government Accountability Office [2010:12-13]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

For Tribes visiting collections, the lack of knowledge about what was held created risks, as proper protocols could not be followed.

“For Tribes visiting collections, the lack of knowledge about what was held in these collections created risks, as proper protocols could not be followed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Program staff reviewed submitted summaries to ensure museums were contacting the appropriate Tribes.

“The program staff reviewed submitted summaries to ensure museums were contacting the appropriate Tribes.”

May combine two claims.

Tribes were confronted with curation and collections management practices they found disrespectful and hurtful, adding further difficulty to collection reviews.

“Tribes were confronted with curation and collections management practices that they found disrespectful and hurtful, adding further difficulty to the already challenging process of conducting collection reviews (e.g., NAGPRA Review Committee 1994b:16).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1994b:16Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The DCA and NAGPRA program lead created guidance and sample documents, compiled a list of 759 Tribal officials, sent notifications to over 15,000 museums, published notices, and implemented a grant program when Congress appropriated funding in fiscal year 1994.

“The DCA and NAGPRA program lead worked to create guidance and sample documents, compiled a list of 759 Tribal officials (few of whom were cultural heritage or cultural resource officials), sent notifications to over 15,000 museums, published notices, and, when Congress appropriated funding in fiscal year 1994, implemented a grant program (NAGPRA Review Committee 1993c:4, 1994a:4, 1994c:4).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1993c:4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1994a:4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1994c:4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Congress assigned responsibility for NAGPRA to the Secretary of the Interior, who delegated most of the duties to the AAD, particularly the DCA.

“Congress assigned responsibility for NAGPRA to the Secretary of the Interior, who delegated most of the duties to the AAD, particularly the DCA.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Museums had to subscribe to the register to receive hard copies or locate them in a subscribing library, because the Federal Register was not readily available online.

“museums had to subscribe to the register to receive hard copies or locate them in a subscribing library, because the Federal Register was not readily available online.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Early practitioners learned that even when information seemed limited, closer examination and good collaboration often revealed that much more could be learned about an item.

“Early practitioners also learned that, even when information seemed limited, a closer examination and good collaboration often revealed that much more could be learned about an item.”

May combine two claims.

As there were no precedents for this work, museums requested sample documents and training.

“As there were no precedents for this work, museums requested sample documents and training (NAGPRA Review Committee 1992b:12, 1994a:8-9).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1992b:12Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1994a:8-9Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The identification and cataloging of records provided a means of connecting them to the corresponding collections.

“The identification and cataloging of records provided a means of connecting them to the corresponding collections.”

May combine two claims.

Tribes were provided with incomplete information, and universities often failed to recognize that human remains and cultural items could be curated outside of anthropology departments.

“Tribes were provided with incomplete information, and universities often failed to recognize that human remains and cultural items could be curated outside of anthropology departments.”

May combine two claims.

While federal agencies did submit summaries and inventories by the deadline, many were incomplete or lacked adequate consultation.

“While federal agencies did submit summaries and inventories by the deadline, many were incomplete or lacked adequate consultation (Government Accountability Office 2010:18-22).”

• cites Government Accountability Office 2010:18-22Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Inadequate records, uncataloged or poorly documented collections, and the long history of collecting all created challenges in understanding the collections.

“Inadequate records, uncataloged or poorly documented collections, and the long history of collecting all created challenges in understanding the collections (e.g., Ambler and Goff 2013:202-203;Goff 2019:28).”

• cites Ambler and Goff 2013:202-203Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Goff 2019:28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Despite obstacles, NAGPRA prompted meaningful progress toward the respectful repatriation and stewardship of Native American ancestral remains and cultural heritage.

“Despite these obstacles, the law prompted meaningful progress toward the respectful repatriation and stewardship of Native American ancestral remains and cultural heritage.”

May combine two claims.

The lack of digitized or online information created barriers to information-sharing, limited museums' ability to reunite records with human remains and cultural items, and prevented the identification of related documentation in other repositories.

“This created barriers to information-sharing, limited museums' ability to reunite records with human remains and cultural items, and prevented the identification of related documentation in other repositories.”

May combine two claims.

Only some of the materials in the collections had specific Tribal identification in museum records, and many of those identifications were made by third parties whose expertise was unclear.

“Only some of the materials in the collections had specific Tribal identification in museum records, and many of those identifications were made by third parties whose expertise was unclear.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Accurate inventory work requires that collections be physically viewed or checked in person; records cannot always be relied upon, especially for collections that did not have adequate curation.

“Accurate inventory work requires that collections be physically viewed or checked in person; records cannot always be relied upon, especially for collections that did not have adequate curation.”

May combine two claims.

While museums understood their mission and public trust responsibilities, many were cautious about identifying cultural items and affiliations.

“While museums understood their mission and public trust responsibilities, many were cautious about identifying cultural items and affiliations (e.g., NAGPRA Review Committee 1993a:4).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1993a:4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Responsibilities were often delegated to staff members or graduate students who already had other duties and may have lacked the necessary background to identify items or determine the appropriate Tribes to consult.

“Often, responsibilities were delegated to staff members or graduate students who already had other duties and may have lacked the necessary background to identify items or determine the appropriate Tribes to consult.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Responsibility for NAGPRA was assigned to the Secretary of the Interior and largely delegated to the Archaeological Assistance Division.

“Assigned to the Secretary of the Interior, the responsibility for NAGPRA was largely delegated to the Archaeological Assistance Division (AAD).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No original data were used in this research.

“No original data were used.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

NAGPRA served as an important wake-up call for museums and federal agencies.

“NAGPRA served as an important wake-up call for museums and federal agencies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The DCA and AAD offered workshops in conjunction with annual professional association meetings and hosted a three-day training at the University of Nevada.

“They also offered workshops in conjunction with annual professional association meetings and hosted a three-day training at the University of Nevada (NAGPRA Review Committee 1994a:4).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1994a:4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Institutional support for NAGPRA work was limited, with small budgets, little administrative assistance, and low prioritization by management.

“Institutional support for the work was limited, with small budgets, little administrative assistance, and low prioritization by management.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

NAGPRA's mandates required museums, federal agencies, and Tribes to create inventories, conduct consultations, and facilitate repatriations of cultural items and human remains.

“The law's mandates required museums, federal agencies, and Tribes to create inventories, conduct consultations, and facilitate repatriations of cultural items and human remains.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

NAGPRA tasks were complicated by inadequate funding, lack of staff, limited training, and technological limitations.

“However, these tasks were complicated by inadequate funding, lack of staff, limited training, and technological limitations.”

May combine two claims.

The only available listing of Tribes was the Bureau of Indian Affairs list, which was not published in the Federal Register until 1995.

“The only available listing of Tribes was the Bureau of Indian Affairs list, which was not published in the Federal Register until 1995.”

May combine two claims.

Improved standards for collections care, along with greater sensitivity to Tribal guidelines, enhanced stewardship.

“Improved standards for collections care, along with greater sensitivity to Tribal guidelines, enhanced stewardship (Sullivan 1992).”

• cites Sullivan 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Review Committee immediately recognized this problem, which persisted for decades.

“The Review Committee immediately recognized this problem (NAGPRA Review Committee 1996a:4), which persisted for decades (see GAO [2010] for a review of federal agency efforts up to 2010).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1996a:4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites GAO [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Documentation related to summaries and inventories was often uncataloged, lacked proper finding aids, was disorganized and not readily accessible, or was housed within the same facility as the collections.

“However, such documentation was often uncataloged, lacked proper finding aids, was disorganized and not readily accessible, or even housed within the same facility as the collections.”

May combine two claims.

Within 18 months, the DCA and AAD created a charter for the Review Committee, appointed its members, issued early guidance on how to interpret the law, hired a program lead, and began drafting regulations.

“Within 18 months, they created a charter for the Review Committee, appointed its members, issued early guidance on how to interpret the law, hired a program lead, and began drafting regulations (NAGPRA Review Committee 1992a:2-5).”

• cites NAGPRA Review Committee 1992a:2-5Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Federal agencies lacked dedicated staff and funding.

“They lacked dedicated staff and funding (Government Accountability Office 2010:17), and many archaeological collections were housed in nonagency repositories, in accordance with the permits issued for excavations on federal lands.”

• cites Government Accountability Office 2010:17Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

At the time of NAGPRA, none of this information was digitized or available online.

“Technology was woefully inadequate at that time: none of this information was digitized or available online.”