The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity and What They Tell Us About Controlled Attention, General Fluid Intelligence, and Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex
Abstract
FIVE CENTRAL FEATURES OF THE THEORY Working memory is a system consisting of those long-term memory traces active above threshold, the procedures and skills necessary to achieve and maintain that activation, and limited-capacity, controlled attention. The specific features of our model include: (1) Domain-free, limited-capacity controlled attention. (2) Domain-specific codes and maintenance (phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are two examples but the potential number of such codes is large). (3) Individual differences in both 1 and 2, but individual differences in capacity for controlled processing are general and possibly the mechanism for general fluid intelligence. Although people can, with practice and expertise, circumvent the abiding limitations of controlled attention in quite specific situations, the limitations reemerge in novel situations and even in the domain of expertise if the situation calls for controlled processing. (4) Limited-capacity, controlled processing is required for maintaining temporary goals in the face of distraction and interference and for blocking, gating, and/or suppressing distracting events. (5) The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and associated structures mediate the controlled processing functions of working memory. We also argue that individual differences in controlled processing represent differences in functioning of the PFC. A number of intellectual influences have served to shape our thinking about working memory (WM) and its evolution as a construct separate from that of short-term memory (STM).
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“we have argued that WM = STM + controlled attention, and that the general, controlled-attention component of the WM system primarily drives the predictive utility of WM span tasks”
From Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. (2003) · cites this paper as Engle, Kane et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Prior research has established the OSPAN task to be a reliable and valid marker of WM capacity.”
From Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. (2003) · cites this paper as Engle, Tuholski et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“the correlations among OSPAN and other WM measures, such as Reading Span (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980), approach the reliability estimates of OSPAN, itself, ranging between r = .40and r = .80”
From Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. (2003) · cites this paper as Engle, Tuholski et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“the mechanism responsible for the broad predictive power of WM span tasks is a domain-general, executive-attention mechanism that allows for the maintenance of stimulus representations, action plans, and goals in the face of interference”
From Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. (2003) · cites this paper as Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999
Citations
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–999 of 999
Arbeitsgedächtnisprofile von Kindern unterschiedlicher Begabungsniveaus
Schuchardt, K., & Mähler, C. (2012) · Lernen und Lernstörungen · doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000017 · Cited by 2
A New Integrated Model for Multitasking during Web Searching
Alexopoulou, P., Morris, A., & Hepworth, M. E. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.088 · Cited by 2
Assessing L2 Lexical Versus Inflectional Accuracy Across Skill Levels
West, D. E. E. (2013) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-013-9268-0 · Cited by 2
Knudsen, K. S., Kaufman, D. S., White, S. A., Silva, A. J., Jentsch, J. D., & Bilder, R. M. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800648-1.00008-5 · Cited by 2
Creative Environments for Innovative Learning Processes
Eriksson, Y., & Jerregård, H. (2009) · Cited by 2
L’évaluation de la mémoire à court terme
Majerus, S. (2014) · Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Liège) · Cited by 2
Nagaraj, N. K. (2014) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 2
Cross-language diversity, head-direction and grammars
Hudson, R. (2017) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2017.06.005 · Cited by 2
Mallahi, O., Amirian, S. M. R., Zareian, G. R., & Adel, S. M. R. (2016) · Iranian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.18869/acadpub.ijal.19.1.99 · Cited by 2
Is memory better for objects than for separate single features? The temporal hypothesis.
Langerock, N., Vergauwe, E., Dirix, N., & Barrouillet, P. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000501 · Cited by 2
Aktywność umysłu w procesach wydobywania informacji pamięciowych
Hankala, A. (2009) · Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego eBooks · doi:10.31338/uw.9788323517238 · Cited by 2
A Kinect-based Interactive Game to Improve the Cognitive Inhibition of the Elderly
Liu, S., Shen, Z., Yu, H., Lin, H. Y., Guo, Z., Pan, Z., Miao, C., & Leung, C. (2016) · Cited by 2
Honomichl, R. D., Taylor, H. G., Carr, S. J. A., Istrate, A. E., & Tatsuoka, C. M. (2019) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000573 · Cited by 2
Reading Span Test for Brazilian Portuguese: An Eye-Tracking Implementation
Riascos, J. A., Brugger, A. M., Borges, P., Fontes, A. B. A. D. L., & Barone, D. C. (2019) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36636-0_8 · Cited by 2
Benso, F., & Chiorri, C. (2023) · RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.3280/rip2022oa15373 · Cited by 2
Time sharing in working memory processing.
Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., Minamoto, T., Nishiyama, S., Chooi, W.-T., Morita, A., Logie, R. H., & Saito, S. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001261 · Cited by 1
Postle, B. R., & Oberauer, K. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190917982.013.14 · Cited by 4
TSUCHIDA, Y., Katayama, J., & Murohashi, H. (2008) · Japanese Journal of Physiological Psychology and Psychophysiology · doi:10.5674/jjppp1983.26.217 · Cited by 2
Mavrou, I. (2017) · Porta Linguarum Revista Interuniversitaria de Didáctica de las Lenguas Extranjeras · doi:10.30827/digibug.53968 · Cited by 2
Choi, S., Sung, J. E., Jo, E., & Jeong, J. H. (2021) · Neurocase · doi:10.1080/13554794.2021.1950768 · Cited by 2
Working memory in n-back tasks : ERP studies
Chen, Y.-N. (2026) · Warwick Research Archive Portal (University of Warwick) · doi:10.82444/warw.33491371 · Cited by 2
RELATIONSHIP OF INDIVIDUAL PILOT FACTORS TO SIMULATED FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
Tolton, R. G. (2014) · Otago University Research Archive (University of Otago) · Cited by 2
Brain function and behaviour related to development and training of working memory
Olesen, J. (2005) · Figshare · Cited by 2
Westerberg, H., Hirvikoski, T., Forssberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004) · Cited by 2
Houston, C. J. (2010) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) · Cited by 2
Strategy selection and strategy efficiency in mental arithmetic
Imbo, I. (2007) · Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) · Cited by 2
Imhof, M. (2017) · doi:10.1002/9781119102991.ch41 · Cited by 3
Charles, T. (2017) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 2
Interference Control in Working MemoryPreprint
Ecker, U. K. H., Brydges, C. R., Gignac, G. E., Rey-Mermet, A., & Singh, K. (2018) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/h8cgs · Cited by 2
Wanmaker, S. (2011) · EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 2
Arbetsminnets betydelse för förmågan att minnas nya ord i kontext hos gymnasieelever i år 2 och 3
Karjalainen, S., Ling, E., & Nystedt, T. (2006) · Lund University Publications Student Papers (Lund University) · Cited by 2
Epstein, R., Bordyug, M., Chen, Y.-H., Chen, Y., Ginther, A., Kirkish, G., & Stead, H. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3930715 · Cited by 1
Tallon, K., Koerner, N., & Yang, L. (2022) · doi:10.32920/21440841 · Cited by 2
Binding of Visual Features in Human Perception and Memory
Jaswal, S. (2010) · ERA · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.2616.5845 · Cited by 2
Information-Processing Skills Related to Working Memory in Individuals With Asperger's Disorder
Musarra, N. L. (2007) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e689312007-001 · Cited by 2
There Is Nothing Wrong With Cognitive Aging, and Here Is What to Do About It
Verhaeghen, P. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197528976.003.0014 · Cited by 1
An item response theory approach to the measurement of working memory capacity
Navarro, E., Hao, H., Rosales, K. P., & Conway, A. R. A. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02115-3 · Cited by 4
50 years of research on working memory
Harasimczuk, J. (2024) · Kwartalnik Naukowy Fides et Ratio · doi:10.34766/fetr.v58i2.1274 · Cited by 2
Bagri, G., & Abrar, S. (2024) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2024.2372189 · Cited by 1
Yates, J., Young, C., & Mantler, T. (2025) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0005148 · Cited by 1
Higher working memory facilitates the inhibition of emotional distraction
He, Y., Zhou, M., Quan, L., Li, X., Hu, N., & Long, Q. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf325 · Cited by 1
Self-reported and task-based measures of attention control are distinct
DiCarlo, J. A., Burgoyne, A. P., Conroy, C., Lin, D. J., & Ward, N. (2026) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-026-03006-z · Cited by 2
Pobar, D. (2004) · Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties · doi:10.1080/19404150409546759 · Cited by 1
Perspectives on the Case of "Judith"
Hyer, L. A., & Brandon, B. M. (2015) · Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy · doi:10.14713/pcsp.v11i1.1885 · Cited by 1
An investigation of multitasking information behavior and the influence of working memory and flow
Alexopoulou, P., Hepworth, M. E., & Morris, A. (2015) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.4907815 · Cited by 1
Analysis of Efficiency of Pilot's Behavior in Condition of Visual Illusion of False Horizon
Bednarek, H. (2011) · Studia Psychologiczne (Psychological Studies) · doi:10.2478/v10167-011-0001-z · Cited by 1
Executive Attention Characteristics in Adults with Aphasia
Kwon, Y.-S., Ha, J.-W., & Kwon, D.-H. (2013) · Eon'eo cheong'gag jang'ae yeon'gu/Communication sciences & disorders · doi:10.12963/csd.13015 · Cited by 1
Les modèles de mesure en éducation
Valois, P., & Martin, R. (2014) · Mesure et évaluation en éducation · doi:10.7202/1024995ar · Cited by 1
Still seeking for an explanation of the Sequential Compatibility Effect
Privado, J., Botella, J., Suero, M., Quiroga, M. Á., & Colom, R. (2015) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.31.2.173071 · Cited by 1
Yu, M. S., & González, C. (2012) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720812468152 · Cited by 1
Capacidade da memória de trabalho e desempenho da escrita na L2
Bergsleithner, J. M. (2010) · Ciências & Cognição · Cited by 1
Attention and the Processing of Sentences
Mishra, R. K. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2592-8_4 · Cited by 1
The Role of Working Memory Capacity in Math Performance
Osei-Boadi, B. (2016) · Scholarship@Western (Western University) · Cited by 1
Remédiation cognitive chez les adultes ayant une déficience intellectuelle
Rigard, C., & Demily, C. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-74526-3.00013-9 · Cited by 1
Rövidtávú emlékezet és munkamemória-kapacitás autizmusban
Juhász, D., & Szabó-Balogh, V. (2016) · Iskolakultúra · doi:10.17543/iskkult.2016.5.36 · Cited by 1
Tradução de teste de capacidade de memória de trabalho do inglês para o português brasileiro
Rigatti, P. C., Fontes, A. B. A. D. L., Magagnin, K. P., & Finger, I. (2018) · Letrônica · doi:10.15448/1984-4301.2017.2.26434 · Cited by 1
A memória de trabalho e seu papel na aprendizagem, em especial, da leitura
Mascarello, L. J. (2018) · Signo · doi:10.17058/signo.v43i77.11954
Words Versus Pictures: Bilingual Performance on Verbal and Pictorial Measures of Executive Functions
Alateeq, H., & Azuma, T. (2022) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2021_jslhr-21-00317 · Cited by 1
Meaningful Assessments of Students Who Struggle to Learn Mathematics
Zhang, D., Maher, C. A., & WILKINSON, L. C. (2022) · Research in mathematics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95216-7_6 · Cited by 1
Relationship between written and spoken text recall in L2
Sletova, N., & Isurin, L. (2022) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12642 · Cited by 1
Working Memory and Prefrontal Functions
Funahashi, S. (2022) · Brain science · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7268-3_3 · Cited by 1
Kućar, M., & Šimleša, S. (2022) · Radovi Zavoda za znanstveni rad Varaždin · doi:10.21857/y54jofvrxm · Cited by 1
Roehm, D., & Angelovska, T. (2024) · Ampersand · doi:10.1016/j.amper.2024.100192 · Cited by 1
Test pozornosti d2: Recenze metody
Kraus, J. (2015) · TESTFÓRUM · doi:10.5817/tf2015-5-36 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Focusing on a Sentence in Japanese Reading Span Test
Osaka, M., & Osaka, N. (2002) · Neuropsychology and cognition · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1011-6_10 · Cited by 1
Cognitive Processing of Quantifiers
Szymanik, J. (2016) · Studies in linguistics and philosophy · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28749-2_5 · Cited by 1
Nishizaki, Y., & Osaka, M. (2006) · KANSEI Engineering International · doi:10.5057/kei.6.2_61 · Cited by 1
Vrhunska sportska izvedba – nešto više od predane vježbe? Razmatranje uloge radnoga pamćenja
Glavaš, D. (2017) · Psihologijske teme · doi:10.31820/pt.26.3.3 · Cited by 1
Mascarello, L. J. (2018) · Revista de Estudos da Linguagem · doi:10.17851/2237-2083.27.1.213-240 · Cited by 1
Mostafa, T. (2021) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/22259031 · Cited by 1
Working Memory Capacity and the Implementation of New Information During Task Repetition
de Paula, S. G. C., Tavares, M. D. G. G., & Weissheimer, J. (2021) · Caligrama Revista de Estudos Românicos · doi:10.17851/2238-3824.26.2.107-123 · Cited by 1
Ivanova, M. V. (2009) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 1
Attention and memory in boys with predominantly inattentive and combined subtypes of ADHD
Gomes, L. (2011) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · doi:10.25911/5d78dcd6b79f3 · Cited by 1
Parent, V. (2010) · Archipel (Université du Québec à Montréal) · Cited by 1
Payne, J. S. (2000) · Research Exchange (Washington State University) · doi:10.7273/000004776 · Cited by 1
Bernardin, S., Portrat, S., & Barrouillet, P. (2006) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.4074/s0003503306001035 · Cited by 1
The Neural Correlates of Emotion Regulation
Tiernan, B. N. (2012) · doi:10.31274/etd-180810-1356 · Cited by 1
Johns, M. (2005) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 1
Working Memory Capacity, Perceptual Speed, and Fluid Intelligence: An Eye Movement Analysis
Redick, T. S. (2006) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University) · Cited by 1
Awareness, aptitude, and French grammatical gender : an exploratory study
Bell, P. (2008) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University) · Cited by 1
Majerus, S. (2010) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000005 · Cited by 1
The Psychology of Self-Control and Consumption-Saving Decisions: Cognitive Perspectives
Benhabib, J., & Bisin, A. (2002) · Cited by 1
Sequence Learning as a Predictor of Audiological Outcomes in Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants 1
Pisoni, D. B., & Davis, R. A. O. (2004) · Cited by 1
Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorders From an Executive Functioning Point of View
Verté, S. (2004) · Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) · Cited by 1
Ghani, K. B. A. (2013) · Unimas Institutional Repository (Universiti Malaysia Sarawak) · Cited by 1
On the cognitive and neuronal effects and mechanisms of working memory training
Salminen, T. (2016) · edoc Publication server (Humboldt University of Berlin) · doi:10.18452/17487 · Cited by 1
Hovik, K. T. (2010) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 1
Memory or attention?, understanding working memory in children
Eastwood, A. E. (2001) · Library and Archives Canada (Government of Canada) · Cited by 1
Lurquin, J., & Miyake, A. (2011) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e520602012-508 · Cited by 1
Collin, V. (2015) · Cited by 1
The construct validity of the clinical assessment of working memory ability
Hill, B. D. (2008) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.1637 · Cited by 1
Cognitive Abilities Underlying the Bilingual Advantage in Set Shifting
Nguyen, T.-K. (2012) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 1
Statistical Word-Learning in Catalan-Spanish Children with Specific Language Impairment
Ahufinger, N. (2019) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 1
A study of novice programmer performance and programming pedagogy.
Dacey, M. (2018) · University Of Wales Trinity Saint David Research Repository (University of Wales Trinity Saint David) · doi:10.82227/repository.uwtsd.ac.uk.00001249 · Cited by 1
Baghdadi, G., Doustmohammadi, A., Jamshidi, A., & Towhidkhah, F. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.12.10.419093 · Cited by 1
Eusebio, E. (2010) · Digital Commons - PCOM (Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine) · Cited by 1
Archibald (2009) · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0099
Metadata
- Authors
- Engle, R. W., Kane, M. J., & Tuholski, S. W.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Southern Illinois University Edwardsville (US)
- Venue
- Models of Working Memory
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 1999-04-13
- Pages
- 102-134
- OpenAlex
- W1559852210
- Cited by
- 1,195
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 66 · 2013: 68 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 105.07
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- working memory, individual differences, attentional control, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, short-term memory, goal maintenance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
