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Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis for Epidemiology: A Practical Guide
Abstract
This book discusses the most important techniques available for longitudinal data analysis, from simple techniques such as the paired t-test and summary statistics, to more sophisticated ones such as generalized estimating of equations and mixed model analysis. A distinction is made between longitudinal analysis with continuous, dichotomous and categorical outcome variables. The emphasis of the discussion lies in the interpretation and comparison of the results of the different techniques. The second edition includes new chapters on the role of the time variable and presents new features of longitudinal data analysis. Explanations have been clarified where necessary and several chapters have been completely rewritten. The analysis of data from experimental studies and the problem of missing data in longitudinal studies are discussed. Finally, an extensive overview and comparison of different software packages is provided. This practical guide is essential for non-statisticians and researchers working with longitudinal data from epidemiological and clinical studies.
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“Post-hoc power calculations based on the inclusion rates of this study with three time points indicated that differences of medium size (d = .59) between study groups over time at a significance level of p = .05 with a power of .80 (Twisk, 2013) could be detected.”
From Online psychosocial group intervention for parents: Positive effects on anxiety and depression. (2021) · cites this paper as Twisk, 2013
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Stress development during emergency remote teaching in higher education
Obermeier, R., Gläser‐Zikuda, M., Bedenlier, S., Kammerl, R., Kopp, B., Ziegler, A., & Händel, M. (2022) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102178 · Cited by 24
Sdona, E., Ekström, S., Andersson, N., Håkansson, N., Wolk, A., Westman, M., van Hage, M., Kull, I., Melén, E., & Bergström, A. (2022) · Clinical and Translational Allergy · doi:10.1002/clt2.12188 · Cited by 22
Crișan, Ş., Stoia, M., Predescu, E., Miu, A. C., & Szentágotai‐Tătar, A. (2023) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2856 · Cited by 21
den Boeft, M., Twisk, J. W. R., Hoekstra, T., Terluin, B., Penninx, B. W. J. H., van der Wouden, J. C., Numans, M. E., & van der Horst, H. E. (2016) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-016-0443-x · Cited by 23
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Oura, P., Rissanen, I. L., Junno, J., Harju, T. H., & Paananen, M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-73334-3 · Cited by 21
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Buscot, M., Wotherspoon, S. J., Magnussen, C. G., Juonala, M., Sabin, M. A., Burgner, D. P., Lehtimäki, T. J., Viikari, J. S. A., Hutri‐Kähönen, N., Raitakari, O. T., et al. (2017) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-017-0358-9 · Cited by 20
Bennett, K. F., Waller, J., McBride, E., Forster, A. S., Gessa, G. D., Kitchener, H. C., & Marlow, L. A. V. (2020) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16460 · Cited by 20
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Aalstad, L. T., Hardie, J. A., Espehaug, B., Thorsen, E., Bakke, P. S., Eagan, T., & Frisk, B. (2018) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-018-0747-9 · Cited by 20
van Dongen, J. M., Alili, M. E., Varga, A. N., Morel, A. E. G., Ben, Â. J., Khorrami, M., van Tulder, M. W., & Bosmans, J. E. (2019) · Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research · doi:10.1080/14737167.2020.1694410 · Cited by 19
Alzate, S. J. G., Sánchez, W. G. V., Espinal, F. E., Bustamante, J. L., & Arias-Arias, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2024.1469347 · Cited by 30
Joo, H. J., Joo, J. H., Kim, S. H., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-22840-7 · Cited by 19
Gregory, D. M., Twells, L., Lester, K. K., Midodzi, W. K., Pedersen, M. R., Pace, D., Smith, C., Boone, D. C., Randell, E. W., & Kovács, C. S. (2017) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11695-017-3007-9 · Cited by 20
Timing of peak pelvis and thorax rotation velocity in baseball pitching
van der Graaff, E., Hoozemans, M. J. M., Nijhoff, M., et al. (2018) · The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine · doi:10.7600/jpfsm.7.269 · Cited by 19
Choi, D., Han, K., Jeon, J., Ju, Y.-J., & Park, E. (2019) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-019-00957-5 · Cited by 20
“GEE is one of the longitudinal methods that allows for longitudinal relationship analysis using all available longitudinal data, without summarizing the longitudinal development of each subject into one value (Hardin and Hilbe 2002; Twisk 2013).”
MethodAn RCT of acute health effects in COPD-patients after passive vape exposure from e-cigarettes
Laursen, K. R., Bønløkke, J. H., Bendstrup, E. M., Bilde, M., Glasius, M., Gutzke, V. H., Moosakutty, S. P., Olin, A., Ravn, P., Østergaard, K., et al. (2020) · European Clinical Respiratory Journal · doi:10.1080/20018525.2020.1861580 · Cited by 20
“Mixed models based on the univariate repeated measurements ANOVA were performed, taking into account the different design variables corresponding to the crossover design [16].”
MethodHoekstra, T., & Twisk, J. W. R. (2015) · Life course research and social policies · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20484-0_9 · Cited by 19
“When analysing health trajectories over time, we should take into account the fact that repeated observations of each individual in the dataset are not independent (Singer and Willett 2003; Twisk 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPols, A. D., Adriaanse, M. C., van Tulder, M. W., Heymans, M. W., Bosmans, J. E., van Dijk, S. E., & van Marwijk, H. W. J. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020412 · Cited by 18
Effects of Immigrants, Health, and Ageing on Economic Growth in the European Union
Gil, M. O., ElHichou-Ahmed, C., & Mata-García, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20010224 · Cited by 18
Fruit, vegetable intake and blood pressure trajectories in older age
Stefler, D., Malyutina, S. K., Nikitin, Y., Nikitenko, T. M., Rodríguez‐Artalejo, F., Peasey, A., Pikhart, H., Sabia, S., & Bobák, M. (2019) · Journal of Human Hypertension · doi:10.1038/s41371-019-0189-8 · Cited by 21
Mäki, T., Oura, P., Paananen, M., Niinimäki, J. L., Karppinen, J. I., & Junno, J. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-56186-4 · Cited by 18
Tsang, V. M. W., Verlinden, E., van Duin, E. M., Twisk, J. W. R., Brilleslijper‐Kater, S. N., Gigengack, M. R., Verhoeff, A. P., & Lindauer, R. (2020) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01067-5 · Cited by 18
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Yuroong, A., Asdornwised, U., Pinyopasakul, W., Wongkornrat, W., & Chansatitporn, N. (2021) · Journal of Nursing Scholarship · doi:10.1111/jnu.12673 · Cited by 19
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Rykov, K., Reininga, I. H. F., Knobben, B. A. S., et al. (2016) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-016-1322-2 · Cited by 17
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Wiertsema, S. H., van Dongen, J. M., Geleijn, E., Beckerman, H., Bloemers, F. W., Ostelo, R., & de Groot, V. (2019) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-019-4547-6 · Cited by 17
Fleming, M., Fitton, C. A., Steiner, M. F. C., McLay, J. S., Clark, D., King, A., Mackay, D., & Pell, J. P. (2020) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyaa002 · Cited by 20
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Ilves, O., Hermsen, L. A. H., van der Wouden, J. C., Holla, J., van der Leeden, M., Smalbrugge, M., Leone, S. S., van der Horst, H. E., & Dekker, J. (2018) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-018-0978-x · Cited by 17
Visual Analysis of Missing Values in Longitudinal Cohort Study Data
Alemzadeh, S., Niemann, U., Ittermann, T., et al. (2019) · Computer Graphics Forum · doi:10.1111/cgf.13662 · Cited by 17
Aalbers, C. J., Broekstra, N., van Geldorp, M., Kramer, E., Ramiro, S., Tak, P. P., Vervoordeldonk, M. J., & Finn, J. D. (2017) · Human Gene Therapy · doi:10.1089/hum.2016.036 · Cited by 16
Lee, R., Chien, W. T., Ligot, J., Nailes, J. M., Tanida, K., Takeuchi, S., Ikeda, M., Miyagawa, S., Nagai, T., Phuphaibul, R., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17072402 · Cited by 19
Makkar, S. R., Lipnicki, D. M., Crawford, J. D., Kochan, N. A., Costa, E., Lima‐Costa, M. F., Diniz, B. S., Brayne, C., Stephan, B. C. M., Matthews, F. E., et al. (2020) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2020.104112 · Cited by 17
“Multivariate survival analysis with ordered failure events was used to account for participants who were cognitively impaired at multiple study waves (Andersen & Gill, 1982; Twisk, 2013).”
MethodArild, A., Vangberg, T. R., Nikkels, H., Lydersen, S., Wisløff, U., Stensvold, D., & Haberg, A. K. (2022) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.203843 · Cited by 18
“Twisk J, Bosman L, Hoekstra T, Rijnhart J, Welten M, Heymans M. Different ways to estimate treatment effects in randomised controlled trials.”
MethodInfluentialKonglevoll, D. M., Hjartåker, A., Hopstock, L., Strand, B. H., Thoresen, M., Andersen, L. F., & Carlsen, M. H. (2022) · The Journal of Frailty & Aging · doi:10.14283/jfa.2022.16 · Cited by 17
David, D., & Fodor, L. A. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-02002-w · Cited by 17
Predictors of lung function in early adulthood: A population‐based cohort study
Zhang, X., Gray, A. R., & Hancox, R. J. (2024) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14732 · Cited by 17
Serotonin and poor neonatal adaptation after antidepressant exposurein utero
Kieviet, N., van Keulen, V., van de Ven, P. M., Dolman, K. M., Deckers, M. M. L., & Honig, A. (2016) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2016.30 · Cited by 16
Reproducibility of Deep Gray Matter Atrophy Rate Measurement in a Large Multicenter Dataset
Meijerman, A., Amiri, H., Steenwijk, M. D., Jonker, M. A., van Schijndel, R. A., Cover, K. S., & Vrenken, H. (2017) · American Journal of Neuroradiology · doi:10.3174/ajnr.a5459 · Cited by 16
van Houdt, C. A., Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S. H., Leemhuis, A. G., Laarman, A. R. C., Koopman-Esseboom, C., van Kaam, A. H., & Oosterlaan, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02100 · Cited by 20
“…effect (Cohen’s d = 0.5), assuming a within-subject correlation of 0.295 (taken from our BGB EF training pilot study in very preterm, Aarnoudse-Moens et al., 2018), a power of 80% and a significance level of 0.05, 39 children in each intervention arm were needed (Twisk, 2013).”
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Cao, L., Zhang, B., Li, J., et al. (2021) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs13132644 · Cited by 16
Kühn, M., Metsä‐Simola, N., & Martikainen, P. (2022) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-022-02371-2 · Cited by 20
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Štefan, L., Mišigoj‐Duraković, M., Devrnja, A., Podnar, H., Petrić, V., & Sorić, M. (2018) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su10093104 · Cited by 16
Changes in workplace car parking and commute mode: a natural experimental study
Knott, C. S., Sharp, S. J., Mytton, O. T., et al. (2018) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2018-210983 · Cited by 15
Kuruczová, D., Klánová, J., Jarkovský, J., Pikhart, H., & Vašků, J. B. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0234074 · Cited by 20
Bergström, G., Gustafsson, K., Aboagye, E., Marklund, S., Aronsson, G., Björklund, C., & Leineweber, C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17134711 · Cited by 18
Hoffmeister, L. V., Nunes, M. F., Figueiredo, C., Coelho, A., Oliveira, M. F. F., Massano, P., Gama, A. F., Aguiar, P. M. V., & Dias, S. (2021) · International Journal of Integrated Care · doi:10.5334/ijic.5592 · Cited by 15
Psychological Distress Among Young Norwegian Health Professionals
Nerdrum, P., & Geirdal, A. Ø. (2013) · Professions and Professionalism · doi:10.7577/pp.526 · Cited by 14
“To assess the degree of comparability between the completer samples and the attrition samples, we applied logistic regressions to assess if gender, married/cohabitation/single, age and psychological distress at t2 predicted attrition or participation at t3 (Twisk, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodChoi, H., Kim, S., Ko, H., Kim, Y., & Park, C.-Y. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12327 · Cited by 16
“To examine the changes in outcome variables overtime, we used a mixed effect model (Gibbons et al. 2010, Twisk 2013).”
MethodFarhat, K., Douma, C. E., Ferrantelli, E., et al. (2017) · Peritoneal Dialysis International · doi:10.3747/pdi.2015.00031 · Cited by 15
Mori, H., Ishizaki, T., & Takahashi, R. (2020) · Geriatrics and gerontology international/Geriatrics & gerontology international · doi:10.1111/ggi.13865 · Cited by 15
Thesing, C. S., Milaneschi, Y., Bot, M., Brouwer, I. A., Owens, M., Hegerl, U., Gili, M., Roca, M., Kohls, E., Watkins, E. R., et al. (2020) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23092 · Cited by 15
“As suggested by Twisk (2013), we used modeling of change scores for both PUFA levels and depression severity (6‐month follow‐up values minus baseline values, and 12‐month follow‐up values minus 6‐month follow‐up values) to create variables reflecting within‐subject change over the two blocks of…”
MethodSonneveld, J., Metz, J. W., Manders, W. A., Schalk, R., & Regenmortel, T. V. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-021-00765-w · Cited by 15
“While we used the most appropriate analysis technique to handle missing data (Twisk, 2013), it may have affected the results.”
MethodMorfeld, P., Noll, B., Büchte, S., Derwall, R., Schenk, V., Bicker, H. J., Hellmut, L., Schrader, N., & Dahmann, D. (2009) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-009-0489-3 · Cited by 14
Cumulative Effects of Mothers’ Risk and Promotive Factors on Daughters’ Disruptive Behavior
van der Molen, E., Hipwell, A. E., Vermeiren, R. R. J. M., & Loeber, R. (2011) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9595-2 · Cited by 14
“A time-lagged model was used in which independent variables (including prior girls’ disruptive behavior) were lagged by 1 year (T-1) in relation to the dependent variable assessed at time T (Twisk 2003).”
Ludwig, H., Gascón, P., Bokemeyer, C., et al. (2018) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-018-4513-6 · Cited by 14
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Rusman, T., Nurmohamed, M. T., Hoekstra, S., et al. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology · doi:10.1080/03009742.2021.1967046 · Cited by 14
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One-year effects of two intensive inpatient treatments for severely obese children and adolescents
Makkes, S., Renders, C. M., Bosmans, J. E., van der Baan‐Slootweg, O. H., Hoekstra, T., & Seidell, J. C. (2016) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-016-0659-x · Cited by 14
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Navarro‐Compán, V., Ramiro, S., Landewé, R., et al. (2017) · Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases · doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210697 · Cited by 13
Leerssen, J., Foster‐Dingley, J. C., Lakbila‐Kamal, O., Dekkers, L. M. S., Albers, A. C. W., Ikelaar, S. L. C., Maksimovic, T., Wassing, R., Houtman, S. J., Bresser, T., et al. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02554-8 · Cited by 14
Schaub, M. P., Maier, L. J., Wenger, A., Stark, L., Berg, O., Beck, T., Quednow, B. B., & Haug, S. (2015) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0518-6 · Cited by 15
Reporting of data analysis methods in psychiatric journals: Trends from 1996 to 2018
Nieminen, P. A., & Kaur, J. (2019) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1784 · Cited by 14
“New statistical techniques have been developed to analyse longitudinal relationships that allow for the use of all available longitudinal data (Diggle, Heagerty, Liang, & Zeger, 2014; Goldstein, 2011; Twisk, 2013).”
MethodEcheverría, L. E., González, C. I., Hernández, G., et al. (2020) · Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical · doi:10.1590/0037-8682-0477-2019 · Cited by 13
The social and physical workplace environment and commute mode: A natural experimental study
Patterson, R., Ogilvie, D., & Panter, J. (2020) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2020.101260 · Cited by 13
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Querido, N. R., Kenkhuis, M., van Roekel, E. H., Breukink, S. O., van Duijnhoven, F. J. B., Janssen-Heijnen, M. L. G., Keulen, E. T. P., Ueland, P. M., Vogelaar, F. J., Wesselink, E., et al. (2022) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-22-0077 · Cited by 12
Comparison of SF-36 and RAND-36 in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Reliability Study
García-Sánchez, E., Santamaría‐Peláez, M., Figuerola, E. B., García, M. J., Hernando, M. C., García, J. M. G., Gonzalez-Bernal, J. J., & González‐Santos, J. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13206106 · Cited by 15
Angst, J., Hengartner, M. P., Wulf Rössler, A., Ajdacic‐Gross, V., & Leeners, B. (2015) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2014.1002556 · Cited by 13
Concurrent and lagged effects of psychosocial job stressors on symptoms of burnout
Hadžibajramović, E., Ahlborg, G., & Grimby‐Ekman, A. (2019) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-019-01437-0 · Cited by 16
“Note that adding the SMBQ-lag in the models removes the cross-sectional part from the analyses (Twisk 2003).”
Seves, B. L., Hoekstra, T., Hoekstra, F., ReSpAct group, Hettinga, F. J., Dekker, R., & van der Woude, L. H. V. (2020) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2020.1833090 · Cited by 13
Guo, F., Liu, Y., Ding, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhang, C., & Fan, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.666194 · Cited by 13
Lu, P., & Shelley, M. (2022) · International Journal of Social Research Methodology · doi:10.1080/13645579.2022.2049509 · Cited by 13
Development of prosocial behaviour in children after the improvement of family competences
Socías, C. O., Brage, L. B., March, M. X., et al. (2015) · Journal of Children s Services · doi:10.1108/jcs-02-2014-0013 · Cited by 12
Evaluation of a New Person-Centered Integrated Care Model in Psychiatry
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Metadata
- Authors
- Twisk, J. W. R.
- Affiliations
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Twisk, Jos W. R.
- ORCID
- Twisk, Jos W. R.
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2013-05-05
- OpenAlex
- W4251962509
- Cited by
- 593
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 8
- FWCI
- 6.66
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
- Keywords
- longitudinal analysis, generalized estimating equations, mixed models, paired t-test, summary statistics, time variable, experimental study, missing data, statistical software comparison, epidemiology
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