The DOI matches its Crossref record; 55 of the 56 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Cognitive impairment in euthymic major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Background: There is evidence to suggest that cognitive deficits might persist beyond the acute stages of illness in major depressive disorder (MDD). However, the findings are somewhat inconsistent across the individual studies conducted to date. Our aim was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of existing studies that have examined cognition in euthymic MDD patients. Method: Following a systematic search across several publication databases, meta-analyses were conducted for 27 empirical studies that compared euthymic adult MDD patients (895 participants) and healthy controls (997 participants) across a range of cognitive domains. The influence of demographic variables and confounding factors, including age of onset and recurrent episodes, was examined. Results: Compared with healthy controls, euthymic MDD patients were characterized by significantly poorer cognitive functions. However, the magnitude of observed deficits, with the exception of inhibitory control, were generally modest when late-onset cases were excuded. Late-onset cases demonstrated significantly more pronounced deficits in verbal memory, speed of information processing and some executive functions. Conclusions: Cognitive deficits, especially poor response inhibition, are likely to be persistent features, at least of some forms, of adult-onset MDD. More studies are necessary to examine cognitive dysfunction in remitted psychotic, melancholic and bipolar spectrum MDD. Cognitive deficits overall appear to be more common among patients with late-onset depression, supporting the theories suggesting that possible vascular and neurodegenerative factors play a role in a substantial number of these patients.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Many patients suffering from MDD present some form of dysfunction in certain cognitive domains; this affects >60% of all depressed patients and significantly impacts treatment outcomes (Bora et al, 2013; Gualtieri and Morgan, 2008; Lee et al, 2012; Murrough et al, 2011; Rock et al, 2014; Trivedi and Greer, 2014).”
From A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Active-Reference, Double-Blind, Flexible-Dose Study of the Efficacy of Vortioxetine on Cognitive Function in Major Depressive Disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Bora et al, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Several cognitive domains, including executive function, attention, memory, processing speed, and psychomotor skills, are affected during both symptomatic as well as “remitted” phases in MDD (Marazziti et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2012; Bora et al., 2013; Bortolato et al., 2014).”
From The Cognitive Effects of Antidepressants in Major Depressive Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials (2016) · cites this paper as Bora et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Although some have demonstrated that individuals experiencing depression perform worse across all neurocognitive domains (e.g., Bora et al., 2013;Parkinson et al., 2020), evidence varies regarding the domain most impacted by depression across the lifespan and include executive function (Alexopoulos, 2021), processing speed (Göke et al., 2024), and verbal memory (Bora et al., 2013;Goodall et al., 2”
From Neurocognitive effects of theta burst stimulation for treatment-resistant depression in adults: A systematic review and recommendations for future research (2025) · cites this paper as Bora et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Mood disorders are also associated with impairments in cognitive functioning.”
From A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Active-Reference, Double-Blind, Flexible-Dose Study of the Efficacy of Vortioxetine on Cognitive Function in Major Depressive Disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Bora et al, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Neurocognitive dysfunction is commonly reported during depressive episodes and even during remission (Bora et al., 2013;Conradi et al., 2011;Hasselbalch et al., 2011).”
From Neurocognitive effects of theta burst stimulation for treatment-resistant depression in adults: A systematic review and recommendations for future research (2025) · cites this paper as Bora et al., 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As cognitive dysfunction is a core symptom of depression that can persist during the remitted state (Bora et al., 2013;Hasselbalch et al., 2011;Kaser et al., 2017), worsens with increasing numbers of depressive episodes (Hasselbalch et al., 2013), and results in disrupted psychosocial functioning (Hasselbalch et al., 2011;Kaser et al., 2017;McCall and Dunn, 2003)”
From Neurocognitive effects of theta burst stimulation for treatment-resistant depression in adults: A systematic review and recommendations for future research (2025) · cites this paper as Bora et al., 2013
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“As pointed out by Fitzgerald 195 , DBS is typically reserved for patients with the most severe forms of TRD”
From Major depressive disorder (2016) · cites this paper as [195]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Even after remission following successful antidepressant treatment, most patients continue to experience cognitive deficits, particularly within domains of executive function, memory, and attention (Hammar and Ardal, 2009; Bora et al., 2013; Rock et al., 2013; Popovic et al., 2015; Solé et al., 2015).”
From Aerobic Exercise as a Tool to Improve Hippocampal Plasticity and Function in Humans: Practical Implications for Mental Health Treatment (2016) · cites this paper as Bora et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“Moreover, these analyses noted an effect of age as a correlate of poor cognitive performance in MDD, introducing disparate etiopathogenic mechanisms (e.g. vascular and neurodegenerative factors).”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Finally, a meta-analysis of 27 studies investigating euthymic adult subjects with MDD showed that executive dysfunction (namely lower inhibitory control) could persist after improvement of depressive symptoms [39].”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Subjects with late-onset depression (i.e. >60 years old) are likely to experience increased impairment in verbal memory, processing speed, and executive function with respect to depressed adults [39].”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive symptoms are seen in first-episode depression [6,8], persist beyond the symptoms of low mood [9-11], contribute to the risk of relapse [12], and worsen with repeated depressive episodes [13,14].”
From Wearable technology for high-frequency cognitive and mood assessment in major depressive disorder: longitudinal observational study (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & for the PRISMA Group (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535 · Cited by 83,823
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement.
(2009) · PubMed Central · Cited by 44,859
Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1186 · Cited by 36,763
Lower Hippocampal Volume in Patients Suffering From Depression: A Meta-Analysis
Campbell, S., Marriott, M., Nahmias, C., & MacQueen, G. M. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.4.598 · Cited by 1,156
Bora, E., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2008) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.009 · Cited by 1,058
Self-citationA meta-analysis of depression severity and cognitive function
McDermott, L. M., & Ebmeier, K. P. (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.04.022 · Cited by 956
Bora, E., Fornito, A., Pantelis, C., & Yücel, M. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.049 · Cited by 763
Self-citationA meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in first-episode Major Depressive Disorder
Lee, R. S. C., Hermens, D. F., Porter, M. A., & Redoblado-Hodge, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.023 · Cited by 737
Bax, L., Yu, L.-M., Ikeda, N., Tsuruta, H., & Moons, K. G. (2006) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/1471-2288-6-50 · Cited by 514
Attention and executive functions in remitted major depression patients
Paelecke-Habermann, Y., Pohl, J., & Leplow, B. (2005) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.09.006 · Cited by 487
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Jaracz, 2002, Cognitive functions in remitted unipolar female depressive patients during maintenance treatment with antidepressants, Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4, 15
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–554 of 554
Interacciones Cerebro-mente: Una Exploración de la Salud Mental y el Funcionamiento Cerebral
Coloma, A. M. R., Carrera, Á. A. L., Espinoza, J. N. C., Cedeño, A. Y. R., Figueroa, R. M. V., & Ortiz, T. V. L. (2023) · Juan Cuevas eBooks · doi:10.56470/978-9942-627-30-8 · Cited by 1
Pavel, A. N., Dutu, I., Giurgiuca, A., & Matei, V. P. (2019) · Romanian Journal of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy · doi:10.37897/rjpp.2019.3.2
Вадимовна, К. Ю., Kaigorodtsev, M. A., Sitnik, L. I., Mikhailov, V. M., & Kolesova, Y. P. (2024) · V M BEKHTEREV REVIEW OF PSYCHIATRY AND MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.31363/2313-7053-2024-853
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.002.0006
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.002.0003
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.002.0004
Kim, S. (2024) · Korean Journal of Clinical Pharmacy · doi:10.24304/kjcp.2024.34.2.118
Ragland, J. D. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820480-1.00195-9
Yoshinari, N., Maeshima, H., Shimizu, K., & Baba, H. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.152
Cognitive Enhancement and Brain Plasticity in Mental Health
West, H. V., Finnegan, M. K., Marder, M. A., Richier, C., Miller, G. A., & Heller, W. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197677131.013.14
Zheng, S., Guo, J., Zheng, R., Ji, Y., Zhong, Q., & Yin, H. (2025) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/da/8124403
ANÁLISE NEUROPSICOLÓGICA DE UMA POPULAÇÃO MENONITA DO SUL DO BRASIL COM SINTOMAS DEPRESSIVOS
Mallmann, M. B., Leal, A. C., & Barbosa, E. G. (2025) · doi:10.29327/5552288.2024-1
ASPECTOS NEUROPSICOLÓGICOS DE ADULTOS MENONITAS COM DEPRESSÃO
Mallmann, M. B., Leal, A. C., & Barbosa, E. G. (2025) · doi:10.29327/5552288.2024-2
Cha, D. S., Carmona, N. E., Cha, R. H., Zhou, A. J., Subramaniapillai, M., Mansur, R. B., Lee, Y. L., Lee, J. H., Lee, J., Almatham, F., et al. (2018) · Annals of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/104012371803000401
Çoban, C., & Bulut, S. D. (2025) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2025.116778
Bortolozzi, A. A., Miquel-Rio, L., Vicent-Gil, M., Jericó-Escolar, J., Carrasco-Hernández, J., Jubero, M., Paz, V., Gawron, L., Ruiz‐Bronchal, E., Vera, J., et al. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8113450/v1
Derakhshan, D., Lipsman, N., Feinstein, A., LEVITT, A. J., Eizenman, M., Rabin, J. S., & Giacobbe, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1696560 · Cited by 1
Jespersen, A. E., Lumbye, A., Vinberg, M., Glenthøj, L., Nordentoft, M., Wæhrens, E. E., Knudsen, G. M., Makransky, G., & Miskowiak, K. W. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25059506
Jespersen, A. E., Lumbye, A., Vinberg, M., Glenthøj, L., Nordentoft, M., Wæhrens, E. E., Knudsen, G. M., Makransky, G., & Miskowiak, K. W. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25059606
The role of cognitive functions in assessing aptitudes for carrying firearms by police officers
Vecchi, M., & Cruz, R. M. (2025) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/1982-0275202x4xe12491
Schandorff, J. M., Eggers, M. B., Zarp, J., Nordseth, B. O. B., Hansen, L., Kessing, L. V., & Miskowiak, K. W. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.121038
Mah, S. C., Parrott, J. E., Lim, Z. Y., Ng, W. S., Umar, H., Khalily, M. T., & Mustafar, F. (2025) · Neuroscience Research Notes · doi:10.31117/neuroscirn.v8i4.454
Lewandowski, K. E., Luo, J., Kolstad, J., Chang, K., Lumbye, A., Jespersen, A. E., & Miskowiak, K. W. (2026) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.70077
Muschner, P., Goldschmidt, L., Gröning, L. S., Spohrs, J., Willmund, G., & Piefke, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423
Lu, W., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Hu, Y., Liu, X., Yang, X., Xu, H., Xu, H., Lin, C., Jiang, X., et al. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121557
Goegan, S. A., Hasey, G., King, J. P., Losier, B. J., Bieling, P., McKinnon, M. C., & McNeely, H. E. (2026) · ALPHA PSYCHIATRY · doi:10.31083/ap45286
Liu, L., Tang, S., Chen, M.-Z., Nie, X., Jing Jing, L. I., Yao, L., Zeng, B.-G., Zhou, J., & Zhou, F.-Q. (2026) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v16.i4.115192
6G Enabled Intelligent Cognitive Based Framework for Mentally Imbalanced Person
Dharanyadevi, P., & Joseph, K. S. (2025) · International Conference on Data Science and Intelligent Network Computing (ICDSINC) · doi:10.1109/icdsinc66221.2025.11448267
Labalestra, M. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/de797289z8c93z4133zbbcczc6d5b606eaec
Impairment of Executive Functions in Premenstrual Syndrome: State or Trait?
Gnaiger, A. M., Werlein, P., Gruschwitz, P., Siebers, M., Panzik, A., Comasco, E., Hidalgo‐Lopez, E., & Pletzer, B. A. (2026) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2026.100730
Les troubles cognitifs dans les épilepsies : de leur apparition à leur prise en charge
Forthoffer, N. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/6bff875bz747dz4f4az9177z2f67e3a02df4
Wang, X., Wang, P., Niu, M., Yangyang, C., Almulla, A. F., Chen, C., Li, J., Zhang, Y., & Maes, M. H. J. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121840
Cognitive enhancement by brain stimulation techniques
(2026) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-8325-7832-2
Ladowsky-Brooks, R. L. (2026) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2026.2675337
Wu, W.-Y., Luo, F., Wang, J., Fang, K.-J., Xing, H.-Y., & Yan, J. (2026) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.115590
Sharpe, V. P., Vallampati, A., Choi, A., Klein, J., Wargo, M., Bracken, B. K., Lynn, S., & Kuperberg, G. R. (2026) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2026.06.003
An evaluation of anxiety and depressive symptoms in terms of smoking among Black adults
Zvolensky, M. J., Pathak, N., Shepherd, J. M., Clausen, B. K., Garey, L., Redmond, B. Y., Jones, A. A., Dinh, L., Duran, A., Rodriguez, A., et al. (2026) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2026.108787
Briley, P. M., Webster, L., Hall, B., Davison, L., Gallagher, P., Pszczółkowski, S., Lankappa, S. T., Auer, D. P., Liddle, P. F., McAllister-Williams, H., et al. (2026) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291726104899
Fundamentos de neuropsicología
Flóres-Lázaro, J. C. (2026) · Ediciones Comunicación Científica eBooks · doi:10.52501/cc.355
Zhang, R., Jiang, C., Guan, Z., Sun, X., Caotian, G., & Teng, W. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-08065-7
Vicent-Gil, M., Trujols, J., Puigdemont, D., Portella, M. J., Alemany, C., Serrano-Gimeno, V., Aibar‐Durán, J. Á., Rodríguez, R. R., Ros, E., Cofán, M., et al. (2026) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2026.111882
Corponi, F., Kalfas, M., Reami, M., Fanelli, G., Ossola, P., Jauhar, S., & Young, A. H. (2026) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.08.16.26360541
Wang, Y., Karaca, S. C., Rasmussen, M. D., Kristensen, J. L., & Kohlmeier, K. A. (2026) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2026.08.049
Hu, Y., Shen, C., Bai, Y., & Wu, R.-Y. (2026) · doi:10.2196/preprints.111048
Cognitive Flexibility Deficits as Predictors of Treatment Resistance in Major Depressive Disorder
Awan, M., Rathore, S., Siddiqui, I., Safder, M., Gull, A., & Sharif, U. (2026) · Journal of Health Wellness and Community Research · doi:10.61919/4ycajg35
CLINICAL AND RESEARCH CASE CONCEPTUALIZATIONS USING THE NIH TOOLBOX® COGNITION TESTS
Hook, J. N., Giella, A. K., & Sivan, A. B. (2026) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394310784.ch7
Yan, Y., Yu, J., Zuo, L., Wang, M., Wei, J., Dou, Y., Yang, X., & Ma, X. (2026) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.70126
Minor depressive symptoms are associated with reduced memory performance across the adult lifespan
Cansino, S., Torres-Trejo, F., Estrada-Manilla, C., & Ruiz‐Velasco, S. (2026) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2026.2729525
Oved, N., Lerner, N., Assa, N., Bukowski, E., Simkin, T., Menestrina, Z., Pasqualotto, A., Fanourakis, M., Bavelier, D., Lipskaya‐Velikovsky, L., et al. (2026) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/94986
Laiton-Jiménez, L. A., Abdelrahman, M., Shalev, I., Sliwinski, M. J., & Veturi, Y. (2026) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2026.101380
Zhou, B., Wang, X., Wang, T., Shi, J., Huang, B., Zhang, Y., Li, G., & Cao, X. (2026) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2026.112195
Metadata
- Authors
- Bora, E., Harrison, B. J., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Bora, E.
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2012-10-26
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 2017-2026
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2020449419
- Cited by
- 551
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression
- Medical Research Council
- National Health and Medical Research Council (628509, 1021973, 566529, 628386)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, cognitive impairment, late-onset depression, response inhibition, verbal memory, processing speed, executive function, age of onset, recurrent depression
- MeSH terms
- Cognition Disorders, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Humans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
