Effects of distributed practice on the acquisition of second language English syntax
Abstract
A longitudinal study compared the effects of distributed and massed practice schedules on the learning of second language English syntax. Participants were taught distinctions in the tense and aspect systems of English at short and long practice intervals. They were then tested at short and long intervals. The results showed that distributed practice led to superior test scores on the long-term tests, indicating that the learning of second language syntax can benefit from distributed practice in a manner very similar to that reported for other skills and information types in the experimental psychology literature. Implications for intensive language-leaning programs and syllabus design in general are discussed.
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Within L2 grammar learning, some studies show superiority of longer-spaced practice, while others claim shorter-spaced practice may be as effective as or even more effective than longer-spaced practice.
“For instance, within the domain of L2 grammar learning, some studies show the superiority of longer-spaced practice (Bird, 2010;Rogers, 2015), while other researchers claim that shorter-spaced practice may be as effective as longer-spaced practice (Kasprowicz et al., 2019) or even more effective than longer-spaced practice (Suzuki, 2017;Suzuki & DeKeyser, 2017a).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bird, 2010
Findings pertaining to lag effects are inconsistent.
“In contrast to the spacing effects, the findings pertaining to lag effects are inconsistent.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Bird, 2010
Cites
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888 · cited 7× · see citing works
“These results are consistent with the large body of evidence in the psychology literature reporting that distributed practice can have a beneficial effect on longterm learning across a variety of information and skill types, provided that the ISI and RI are set to a ratio where ISI is 10% to 30% of the RI (Cepeda et a…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: Now you see it, now you don’t
Donovan, J. J., & Radosevich, D. J. (1999) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.5.795 · Cited by 696 · see citing works
Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention
Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., & Pashler, H. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E. (1993) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00571.x · Cited by 334 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Conversely, foreign language vocabulary learning has been shown to be beneficially affected by distributed practice (Bahrick et al., 1993; Bloom & Shuell, 1981), and this may reflect the relatively uncomplicated nature of vocabulary learning (e.g., word lists with native language translations;…”
BackgroundOptimizing distributed practice
Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2009) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
The effects of overlearning and distributed practise on the retention of mathematics knowledge
Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1266 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Bloom, K. C., & Shuell, T. J. (1981) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1981.10885317 · Cited by 243 · cited 7× · see citing works
“We should see distributed practice benefits, at least at long RIs, where the ISI is between 10% and 30% of the RI.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRetention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years.
Bahrick, H. P., & Phelphs, E. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.2.344 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Distributed and massed practice from laboratory to classroom
Seabrook, R., Brown, G. D. A., & Solity, J. E. (2005) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1066 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Increasing Retention Without Increasing Study Time
Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2007) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00500.x · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Spacing repetitions over 1 week
Glenberg, A. M., & Lehmann, T. S. (1980) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03213772 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
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Spaced Repetition Promotes Efficient and Effective Learning: Policy Implications for Instruction
Kang, S. H. K. (2016) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732215624708 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Recent research on human learning challenges conventional instructional strategies
Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2010) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x10374770 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
The Effects of Spaced Practice on Second Language Learning: A Meta‐Analysis
Kim, S. K., & Webb, S. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12479 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Kapler, I. V., Weston, T., & Wiseheart, M. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.11.001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Suzuki, Y. (2021) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12433 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Learning Second Language Syntax Under Massed and Distributed Conditions
Rogers, J. (2015) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.252 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
KASPROWICZ, R. E., MARSDEN, E., & SEPHTON, N. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12586 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT
Suzuki, Y., & Hanzawa, K. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263121000358 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“…studies to investigate the optimal lags for different aspects of L2 learning: pronunciation (Li & DeKeyser, 2019), vocabulary (Nakata, 2015; Rogers & Cheung, 2020a, 2020b; Serrano & Huang, 2018), and grammar (Bird, 2010;Kasprowicz et al., 2019; Rogers, 2015; Suzuki, 2017; Suzuki& DeKeyser, 2017a).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLI, M., & DEKEYSER, R. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12580 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Tadayonifar, M., & Entezari, M. (2026) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688261452314
- Authors
- BIRD, S.
- Affiliations
- United Arab Emirates University (AE)
- Corresponding author
- BIRD, STEVE
- Venue
- Applied Psycholinguistics
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2010-08-27
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 635-650
- ISSN
- 0142-7164 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-1817
- OpenAlex
- W2047320570
- Cited by
- 117
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 19.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Applied Psycholinguistics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- distributed practice, massed practice, second language acquisition, English syntax, tense and aspect, long-term retention, intensive language learning, syllabus design
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