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Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics
Open accessAbstract
ABSTRACT This article locates Norton's foundational work on identity and investment within the social turn of applied linguistics. It discusses its historical impetus and theoretical anchors, and it illustrates how these ideas have been taken up in recent scholarship. In response to the demands of the new world order, spurred by technology and characterized by mobility, it proposes a comprehensive model of investment, which occurs at the intersection of identity, ideology, and capital. The model recognizes that the spaces in which language acquisition and socialization take place have become increasingly deterritorialized and unbounded, and the systemic patterns of control more invisible. This calls for new questions, analyses, and theories of identity. The model addresses the needs of learners who navigate their way through online and offline contexts and perform identities that have become more fluid and complex. As such, it proposes a more comprehensive and critical examination of the relationship between identity, investment, and language learning. Drawing on two case studies of a female language learner in rural Uganda and a male language learner in urban Canada, the model illustrates how structure and agency, operating across time and space, can accord or refuse learners the power to speak.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The article revisits Norton’s foundational identity-and-investment framework and proposes an expanded model in which investment is shaped where identity, ideology, and capital meet. It illustrates the model through two contrasting learners: Henrietta in rural Uganda and Ayrton in urban Canada.
Key findings
- The authors argue that investment should be examined at the meeting point of identity, ideology, and capital, extending earlier work that distinguished investment from motivation and treated learners as socially positioned rather than unitary.
- They review how investment research has spread across North America, Asia, Africa, Europe, and Brazil, including studies of Chinese learners, Ugandan digital literacy, and language-teacher identity.
- Henrietta, an 18-year-old female learner in rural Uganda with per-capita income under $1 a day, limited electricity, and no running water, participated in a digital-resources study on HIV/AIDS; her investment was tied to an imagined identity as knowledgeable and connected to Canadians, but constrained by economic, infrastructural, and ideological positioning.
- Ayrton, a 16-year-old Filipino male in a wealthy Vancouver neighborhood whose family emigrated through the Investor Class requiring at least CAN$1.6 million net worth, had multiple digital devices, seamless connectivity, and an online currency-trading course; his capital and habitus supported legitimate participation and an entrepreneurial identity.
Methods
- Conceptual and theoretical article combining a literature review with model-building; the proposed model integrates identity, ideology, and capital.
- Uses two illustrative case studies drawn from prior research: Henrietta from a Uganda HIV/AIDS digital-resources study and Ayrton from a study of digital literacies in home settings.
- Comparative qualitative analysis of structure and agency across time and space; no new large-scale empirical data or statistical analysis is reported.
Limitations
- No formal limitations section is present; the text notes that for Henrietta, whether perceived benefits become durable symbolic capital is yet to be seen.
- Evident from the text: the two cases are illustrative and come from separate prior studies, not a representative sample, so the model is not empirically tested here.
- Evident from the text: the article is largely a review and theoretical proposal relying on secondary literature and selected cases, with no systematic coding or generalizable outcome measures described.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
14 Own result · 3 No full text of the sources · 2 Sources not found · 2 Own method · 2 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model recognizes that the spaces in which language acquisition and socialization take place have become increasingly deterritorialized and unbounded, and the systemic patterns of control more invisible.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Abstract
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model addresses the needs of learners who navigate their way through online and offline contexts and perform identities that have become more fluid and complex.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Abstract
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it proposes a comprehensive model of investment, which occurs at the intersection of identity, ideology, and capital.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Abstract
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is her own economic capital limited, but also the technological infrastructure of her local context is poorly resourced.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Two case studies
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, his possession of economic, cultural, and social capital and his identity as a member of a highly industrialized country allow him to position himself as a legitimate participant and contributor in the different affinity spaces he occupies online.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Two case studies
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The social position of Ayrton as part of a privileged class in a highly industrialized country has made technology natural, providing him with all the affordances of learning.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Two case studies
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As presented above, the model we propose responds to the demands and realities of the new world order, locating investment at the intersection of identity, capital, and ideology.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > the model in praxis
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recognizing how power flows in different directions through these contiguous spaces, learners operating in different fields perform multiple identities.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > the model in praxis
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Governed by different ideologies and possessing varying levels of capital, learners position themselves and are positioned by others in different contexts.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > Identity
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recognizing that they have the agency to assert their own identities, learners are able to negotiate symbolic capital, reframe relations of power, and challenge normative ways of thinking, in order to claim the right to speak.”
§ Identity and a Model of Investment in Applied Linguistics > the model in praxis
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“Extending Darvin and Norton (2015), the study shows that investment is shaped by learners' efforts to align who they are becoming, what they believe about language, and what resources they can access.”
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Ree-Skrefsrud, K., & Tavares, V. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-00887-9_21
A cognitive resource trade-off model of AI-assisted language learning in Chinese undergraduates
Li, S., Hua, Y., Yuan, Y., & Li, D. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1872681
Oportunidades e resultados da internacionalização: o que eu ganho com isso?
Spindola, E. (2022) · Pimenta Cultural eBooks · doi:10.31560/pimentacultural/2022.357.309-321
Ideology, Investment, and Identity in Chinese Language Learning: Past, Present, and Future
Xu, W. J. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-2175-7_8
Shehab, E. (2026) · Language Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1515/cercles-2025-0057
Metadata
- Authors
- Darvin, R., & Norton, B.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 35
- Pages
- 36-56
- ISSN
- 0267-1905 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-6356
- OpenAlex
- W1995814878
- Cited by
- 1,186
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 182 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 146 · 2023: 93 · 2022: 141 · 2021: 136 · 2020: 102 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 56 · 2017: 58 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 8
- FWCI
- 349.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Multilingual Education and Policy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
- Keywords
- identity, investment, Norton, ideology, capital, language learning, deterritorialization, structure and agency, online and offline learning
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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