Cited by 234Child Abuse and TraumaStress Responses and CortisolChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Effects of early stress on brain structure and function: Implications for understanding the relationship between child maltreatment and depression

KAUFMAN, JOAN, CHARNEY, DENNIS·2001·Development and Psychopathology

DOI 10.1017/s0954579401003030

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Abstract

Child abuse is associated with markedly elevated rates of major depression (MDD) in child, adolescentt, and adult cohorts. This article reviews preclinical (e.g., animal) studies of the effects of early stress and studies of the neurobiological correlates of MDD in adults and children, and it highlights differences in the neurobiological correlates of MDD and stress at various developmental stages. The preclinical studies demonstrate that stress early in life can alter the development multiple neurotransmitter systems and promote structural and functional alterations in brain regions similar to those seen in adults with depression. Preclinical and clinical studies suggest, however, that long-term neurobiological changes associated with early stress can be modified by familial/genetic factors, the quality of the subsequent caregiving environment, and pharmacological interventions. Little is known about how developmental factors interact with experiences of early stress and these other modifying factors. Moreover, in cases of child maltreatment, the effects of early abuse are often exacerbated by failures in the child protection system and repeat out-of-home placements. Given the number of factors that impact on the long-term outcome of maltreated children, multidisciplinary research efforts are recommended to address this problem-with foci that span from neurobiology to social policy.

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“For example, depression, with similar good pharmaceutical reactivity to OCD, has been demonstrated to arise from certain intracerebral reactions triggered by perceptions of psychological stress (Burke, Davis, Otte, & Mohr, 2005; Kaufman & Charney, 2001).”
Background
Parent Language Input Prior to School Forecasts Change in Children’s Language-Related Cortical Structures During Mid-Adolescence
Demir‐Lira, Ö. E., Asaridou, S. S., Nolte, C., Small, S. L., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.650152 · Cited by 7
“One could argue that language input might be correlated with other factors that predict brain structure – some of these include general cognitive stimulation, toxins, sleep differences, and even stress and glucocorticoids during pregnancy (Kaufman and Charney, 2001; Davis et al., 2013).”
Background
PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF BETRAYAL TRAUMA: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF YOUNG ADULTS
Goldsmith, R. (2004) · Cited by 6
Children in Disasters
Schonfeld, D. J., & Gurwitch, R. H. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02202-9_50 · Cited by 8
EARLY PREWEANING METHAMPHETAMINE AND POSTWEANING REARING CONDITIONS INTERFERE WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERIPHERAL STRESS PARAMETERS AND NEURAL GROWTH FACTORS IN GERBILS
Lehmann, K., Garea‐Rodríguez, E., Kratz, O., Moll, G. H., Dawirs, R. R., & Teuchert, G. (2007) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/00207450600934937 · Cited by 5
“Alterations in the hemispheric asymmetry of prefrontal and temporal cortices are a central phenomenon in psychiatric diseases like schizophrenia and depression (Crow, 1997; Shah et al., 1998), which can be elicited by early traumatic experiences (Kaufman & Charney, 2001; Read et al., 2001).”
Background
Noradrenergic gene variation shaping vulnerability and resilience by affecting mental health-related characteristics: A systematic review
van Hooijdonk, C. F. M., Voulgaropoulou, S. D., Podrzaj, L., Wolvekamp, D., van Amelsvoort, T., & Leibold, N. K. (2024) · Neuroscience Applied · doi:10.1016/j.nsa.2024.104087 · Cited by 5
“Exposure to stress has been associated with changes in brain function and structure (Kaufman and Charney, 2001; McEwen, 2006).”
Amygdala, Childhood Adversity and Psychiatric Disorders
Yan, X. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/52088 · Cited by 4
“In particular, childhood maltreatment has been linked to a variety of changes in stress-responsive neurobiological systems including brain structure and function [3].”
Background
Relations between Parenting, Family Context, and Emotion Regulation in the Development of Psychopathology in Young Maltreated Children
Robinson, L. R. (2006) · ScholarWorks @ The University of New Orleans (The University of New Orleans) · Cited by 4
Transmitter balances in the olfactory cortex: Adaptations to early methamphetamine trauma and rearing environment
Lehmann, K., & Lehmann, D. (2007) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2007.01.020 · Cited by 4
You'd Have to Be Sick Not to Be Crazy
Silvestri, A. J., & Joffe, J. M. (2004) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1023/b:jopp.0000024803.84954.69 · Cited by 3
“Other stressors, such as childhood abuse, also predispose individuals to increased rates of depression in adulthood (for review, see Kaufman & Charney, 2001 ).”
Background
Maternal separation in the rat : long-term effects of early life events on emotionality, drug response and neurobiology
Marmendal, M. (2005) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University) · Cited by 3
LA SALUD MENTAL DEL BEBÉ. NUEVAS EVIDENCIAS
Maldonado-Durán, J. M., García, J. M. S., Lartigue, T., et al. (2002) · Salud Mental · Cited by 2
Neurociencia en Psiquiatria; hacia una medicina integral y personalizada en el DSM-V: una propuesta. Neuroscience in Psychiatry towards an integrative and personalized medicine in the DSM-V: a proposal.
Olivas, C. A. N., & Solís, E. E. P. (2009) · Cuadernos de neuropsicología · Cited by 2
Resilience and Vulnerability to Trauma
Cooper, N. S., Feder, A., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195306255.003.0015 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Association of individual psychopathology with family functioning in a Greek nonclinical sample
Adamis, D., Petmeza, I., McCarthy, G. M., Tsibidaki, A., & Tsamparli, A. (2018) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2018.1503215 · Cited by 2
“Equally, maltreatment early in development may affect structuring of certain regions of the brain (neuronal atrophy of the hippocampus) (Kaufman & Charney, 2001), maternal depression affects the capacity of the child to externalize problems (Goodman et al., 2011), and increase the risk that young…”
Background
Traumatic Occurrences as a Trajectory for Structural and Functional Brain Disorders
Fangwi, M. L. (2018) · Greener Journal of Arts and Humanities · doi:10.15580/gjah.2018.1.101418045 · Cited by 1
“Kaufman & Charney (2001) holds that while some experiences with manageable stress condition is important for healthy development, prolonged uninterrupted, overwhelming stress can have toxic effects.”
Background
A Review and Classification of Widely used Offline Brain Datasets
Wasim, M., Sajjad, M., Ramzan, F., Khan, M. U. G., & Mahmood, W. (2018) · International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications · doi:10.14569/ijacsa.2018.090254 · Cited by 2
“The functions and structure of the human brain have always fascinated researchers [2], [3].”
Background
Life Beyond Betrayal: the Influence of Self-as-context on Self-complexity and Posttraumatic Stress
Sinha, A. P. (2014) · doi:10.12794/metadc699906 · Cited by 2
Typical and Atypical Brain Development Across the Life Span in a Neural Network Model of Psychopathology
Ganzel, B. L., & Morris, P. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy215 · Cited by 3
Perfil neuropsicológico de niños víctimas del conflicto armado colombiano
Surcolombiana, U., Villanueva-Bonilla, C., Londoño-Guzmán, D., Buenaventura, U. D. S., Gallardo, Á. M. R., Surcolombiana, U., Morales, J. M., Buenaventura, U. D. S., Vargas, D. R., & Buenaventura, U. D. S. (2023) · Editorial Universidad Santiago de Cali eBooks · doi:10.35985/9786287604421.2 · Cited by 1
Prevalence, Levels and Correlates of Intellectual Disability among Adolescents Incarcerated in a Correctional Facility in Kaduna, NorthWestern Nigeria
Lasisi, M. D., Nuhu, F. T., Okechukwu, O., Adebayo, F., Sheikh, T. L., Ehi, E. E., & Moneme, P. (2024) · African Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ajhs.v36i4.4 · Cited by 1
Resting-State EEG Correlates of Childhood Maltreatment and Depression: Potential Neurophysiological Links and Future Research Directions
Watson, C. B., Sharpley, C. F., & Bitsika, V. (2025) · NeuroSci · doi:10.3390/neurosci7010003 · Cited by 1
“Research has sought to identify these factors for further examination as potential biomarkers for depression [4,14]; however, current findings are inconsistent and have a narrow application to depression biomarker development.”
Efficacy of trauma-focused-cognitive behavioral therapy on comorbid symptoms in preschool children: A systematic literature review
Philippine, V., Soubelet, A., Ferrandez, S., & Askenazy-Gittard, F. (2026) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2026.100641 · Cited by 1
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Çeri, V. (2018) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-7513-9.ch001 · Cited by 1
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR: GENES, BRAIN AND ENVIRONMENT AS DIRECT AND INTERACTIVE PREDICTORS OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR FROM EARLY CHILDHOOD TO YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Hyde, L. W. (2012) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 1
Childhood Abuse and Neglect: A Profile of Associated Risk Factors for Non-Suicidal Self-Injury
Gomez, J. P. (2014) · Scholarship@Western (Western University) · Cited by 1
EXPOSURE TO MATERNAL DEPRESSION DURING CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR IN EARLY ADULTHOOD: A POSSIBLE MEDIATING ROLE FOR BRAIN STRUCTURE
Gilliam, M. (2014) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 1

Authors: KAUFMAN, J., & CHARNEY, D.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
National Institute of Mental Health (US)
ORCID: KAUFMAN, JOAN
CHARNEY, DENNIS
Venue: Development and Psychopathology
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 2001-09
Volume: 13
Issue: 3
Pages: 451-471
ISSN: 0954-5794 (ISSN-L)
1469-2198
DOI: 10.1017/s0954579401003030
OpenAlex: W2067313498
Cited by: 233
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 16
FWCI: 9.32
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 26 d)
Locations: Development and Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: early life stress, child abuse, major depressive disorder, brain structure, brain function, developmental stages, neurotransmitter systems, care environment, genetic factors, pharmacological interventions, child protection system, out-of-home placement, animal models of stress
MeSH terms: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Adult, Age Factors, Atrophy, Brain, Child, Child Abuse, Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone, Major Depressive Disorder, Humans, Hypothalamus, Neural Inhibition, Neurons, Norepinephrine, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic

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Effects of early stress on brain structure and function: Implications for understanding the relationship between child maltreatment and depression

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