Networks and social cohesion in ancient Indian Ocean trade: geography, ethnicity, religion

The quote only partly states this claim.

In the Periplus, networks are described according to their geographical wellspring, such as a port, a region, or a polity.

“In the Periplus these networks are described according to their geographical wellspring.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Periplus describes networks centred on Egypt, the kingdoms of Saba-Himyar and Hadramawt in South Arabia, southern Mesopotamia, the region called Ariake in western India, and the region known as Limyrike in South India.

“In summary, we find networks centred on Egypt, the kingdoms of Saba-Himyar and Hadramawt in South Arabia, southern Mesopotamia (ruled by the Parthian/Arsacid empire at this time), the region called Ariake ˆin western India (the Kshatrapa kingdom), and the region known as Limyrike ˆin South India (early Tamil kingdoms)”

It may state two separate claims as one.

There are archaeological indications of residents of Indian origin from the Egyptian Red Sea ports of Berenike and Myos Hormos, as well as Khor Rori in modern Oman, and worshippers from India, Arabia, and Syria found their way to a cave sanctuary on the island of Socotra.

“There are archaeological indications of residents of Indian origin from the Egyptian Red Sea ports of Berenike and Myos Hormos, 24 as well as Khor Rori in modern Oman, 25 and worshippers from India, Arabia, and Syria found their way to a cave sanctuary on the island of Socotra.”

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It may state two separate claims as one.

In South Arabia c.356 CE, the imperial emissary Theophilus was sent to the king of Himyar to ask permission to establish churches for visiting Roman traders, and three churches were built at the expense of the Himyarite king at Saphar, Aden, and an unidentified port at the mouth of the Persian Gulf.

“Three churches were eventually built at the expense of the Himyarite king: at the capital Saphar, in Aden (described as the most important market town), and at an unidentified port at the mouth of the Persian Gulf.65”

• cites [65]Not matched

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A body of about thirty so-called 'caravan inscriptions' from Palmyra itself commemorates the successful return of caravans from the Persian Gulf and documents the presence of Palmyrene individuals and communities in Mesopotamia, as well as their trade with north-western India.

“A body of about thirty so-called 'caravan inscriptions' from Palmyra itself commemorates the successful return of caravans from the Persian Gulf and documents the presence of Palmyrene individuals and communities in Mesopotamia, as well as their trade with north-western India.”

• cites [35]Not matched

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It may state two separate claims as one.

Although Christianity continued to flourish in South India, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, links to commercial activities in the Indian Ocean were no longer evident in the Red Sea ports after the rise of Islam, and after the ninth century in the Gulf.

“Although Christianity continued to flourish in South India, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, links to commercial activities in the Indian Ocean were no longer evident in the Red Sea ports after the rise of Islam, and after the ninth century in the Gulf.76”

• cites [76]Not matched

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The excavations of Berenike, an important Red Sea port in Egypt, have so far unearthed texts in twelve different languages, underlining the cosmopolitan character of ancient Indian Ocean trade.

“The excavations of Berenike, an important Red Sea port in Egypt, have so far unearthed texts in twelve different languages, underlining the cosmopolitan character of ancient Indian Ocean trade.”

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Diaspora groups were experts on home and host cultures alike, and could provide the infrastructure of trust needed for people operating far away from home.

“Diaspora groups were experts on home and host cultures alike, and could provide the infrastructure of trust needed for people operating far away from home.”

• cites [5]Not matched

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With some exceptions, the parts of the Periplus describing the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Arabian and Indian coasts of the Arabian Sea seem to be based on first-hand knowledge or reliable reports, while the descriptions of the east coast of Africa below Ras Hafun, the Persian/Arabian Gulf, and the Bay of Bengal appear to be badly informed.

“With some exceptions, the parts describing the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Arabian and Indian coasts of the Arabian Sea seem to be based on first-hand knowledge or reliable reports, while the descriptions of the east coast of Africa below Ras Hafun, the Persian/Arabian Gulf, and the Bay of Bengal appear to be badly informed.”

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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The development of Christian trading diasporas in late antiquity anticipates the existence of the better-documented Jewish and Islamic diasporas of later periods.

“the argument is made that the development of Christian trading diasporas in late antiquity anticipates the existence of the better-documented Jewish and Islamic diasporas of later periods.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the Periplus, merchants from Arabia are not only described as Arabs but are also identified by information on which city or kingdom they came from, signifying that they were not perceived as a homogenous group.

“In the Periplus, merchants from Arabia are not only described as Arabs (sections 16, 30) but are also identified by information on which city or kingdom they came from, signifying that they were not perceived as a homogenous group.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Most 'Greeks' encountered in the Indian Ocean world would have come from the Roman and Parthian empires, some perhaps also from the erstwhile Greek-ruled regions of north-western India.

“Most 'Greeks' encountered in the Indian Ocean world would have come from the Roman and Parthian empires, some perhaps also from the erstwhile Greek-ruled regions of north-western India.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Trading diasporas and circulation societies are simply two ways of characterizing networks of social and commercial interaction, and both were represented in the western Indian Ocean in the ancient period.

“trading diasporas and circulation societies are simply two ways of characterizing networks of social and commercial interaction, and, arguably, both were represented in the western Indian Ocean in the ancient period.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is a report on Indian Ocean trade and navigation, written in koine Greek in the mid first century CE by a merchant from Egypt.

“The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is a report on Indian Ocean trade and navigation, written in koine Greek in the mid first century CE by a merchant from Egypt, 20 which was then a part of the Roman empire.”

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The trade in the western Indian Ocean was made possible by the monsoon winds, which blow steadily from the south-west from June to September/October, and from the north-east from November to April/May.

“the trade was made possible by the monsoon winds, which in the Arabian Sea blow steadily from the south-west from June to September/October, and from the north-east from November to April/May”

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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

An ability to communicate in a common language would have been a sine qua non among members of the network.

“An ability to communicate in a common language, although not necessarily a first language, would have been a sine qua non among members of the network.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Shipwreck, slavery, and personal circumstances caused a significant number of Indian Ocean travellers to end up in places other than that of their origin.

“Shipwreck, slavery, and personal circumstances also caused a significant number of Indian Ocean travellers to end up in places other than that of their origin.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Traders and travellers belonging to a portable religion could seek out the local community of co-religionists and could reasonably expect to be welcomed there by people who could navigate in the local host culture as well as that of the visiting trader.

“Traders and travellers belonging to one of these could seek out the local community of co-religionists, and could reasonably expect to be welcomed there by people who could navigate in the local host culture as well as that of the visiting trader.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Different models of organization had influence on the accessibility, strength, and vulnerability of networks.

“An attempt has been made in this article to show how different models of organization had influence on the accessibility, strength, and vulnerability of networks, and how merchants could draw on multiple networks in order to establish the necessary infrastructure of trust.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Jewish and Islamic networks were polycentric, both as religious networks and as commercial networks.

“Jewish and Islamic networks, on the other hand, were polycentric, as much when viewed as religious networks as when seen as commercial.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Christian communities might have served as meeting places - network nodes - where transactions of business, credit, and information could take place.

“As with the practices documented in the medieval letters from the Cairo Geniza, it is possible that Christian communities might have served as meeting places -network nodes -where transactions of business, credit, and information could take place.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Church officials and missionaries travelling in the Indian Ocean had to rely on commercial shipping, as other means of maritime passage were not available, and overland travel along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coasts was difficult.

“It is clear that church officials and missionaries travelling in the Indian Ocean had to rely on commercial shipping, as other means of maritime passage were simply not available, and overland travel along the hot and arid coasts of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf was difficult at best.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Worshippers of local versions of deities in different shrines did not belong to a community of worshippers and preserved no social ties of a religious nature when they left the temple.

“Local versions of otherwise identical deities were worshipped in hundreds of shrines across the ancient world but, although two sea-captains from different places might offer sacrifice together in the temple of Neptune/Poseidon in their common port of call, they did not belong to a community of Neptune-worshippers, and preserved no social ties of a religious nature when they left the temple.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

These church organizations were networks based on strong and formal ties, very vulnerable to fragmentation in the Indian Ocean setting, where the imperial backing available in the Roman empire - and to a certain extent even in the Sasanian world - did not exist.

“These church organizations were networks based on strong and formal ties, very vulnerable to fragmentation in the Indian Ocean setting, where the imperial backing available in the Roman empire -and to a certain extent even in the Sasanian world 77 -did not exist.”

• cites [77]Not matched

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This limited access potentially impeded interactions with non-Christian merchants from the same geographical region, ethnic group, or nationality, thus probably leading to a strong degree of cohesion between network members.

“This potentially impeded interactions with non-Christian merchants from the same geographical region, ethnic group, or nationality, thus probably leading to a strong degree of cohesion between network members.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

These religious networks were not oriented towards a homeland, were durable as well as flexible, and were off limits to non-believers, thus fostering strong cohesion between those connected by them.

“These networks were not oriented towards a homeland, were durable as well as flexible, and were also off limits to non-believers, thus fostering strong cohesion between those connected by them.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Palmyrene and other Mediterranean and Near Eastern polytheistic religions primarily belonged to the 'here' and 'there' groups, while Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, and later Islam were universal in the sense that they could be worshipped anywhere.

“While Palmyrene and other Mediterranean and Near Eastern polytheistic religions primarily belonged to the 'here' and 'there' groups, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, and, later, Islam were universal in the sense that they could be worshipped anywhere.”

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Probably not a substantial claim.

Jonathan Z. Smith divides religions into those practised 'here' (domestic), 'there' (civic/national), and 'anywhere'.

“Jonathan Z. Smith conceptualizes these differences by dividing religions into those that are practised 'here' (the domestic sphere), 'there' (the civic and national spheres), and 'anywhere'.58”

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The Palmyrene network was characterized by closed access and strong cohesion, as it was difficult or impossible for outsiders to join and the institutions regulating interaction between members of the community were numerous and potentially strong.

“The Palmyrene network can thus be described as characterized by closed access and strong cohesion, as it was difficult or impossible for outsiders to join and the institutions regulating interaction between members of the community were numerous and potentially strong.”

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The Palmyrene network in the Indian Ocean world revolved around its Syrian hub and lacked the resilience and flexibility to withstand the Roman strike at its centre.

“The Palmyrene network in the Indian Ocean world revolved around its Syrian hub, and did not possess the necessary resilience and flexibility to withstand the Roman strike at its centre.”

• cites [52]Not matched

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The city of Palmyra played an important role in the trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean in the first three centuries CE, taking part in maritime commerce by way of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, in addition to overland caravan trade across the Syrian Desert.

“The city played an important role in the trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean in the first three centuries CE, 33 taking part in maritime commerce by way of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, in addition to overland caravan trade across the Syrian Desert.”

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• cites [34]Not matched

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It may state two separate claims as one.

According to Kosmas, Christianity was practised by the resident foreign diaspora and presumably connected to trade, while the indigenous population belonged to a different religion.

“Significantly, Christianity is reported to be a religion practised by the resident foreign diaspora, and thus presumably connected to trade, while the indigenous population is described as belonging to a different religion.66”

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The Christian merchant network in the Indian Ocean meets Brubaker's criteria of dispersion and distinctive identity, but fails the criterion of a common homeland in the visible world, though it had a perceived otherworldly homeland.

“The network clearly lives up to two of the criteria held forth by Brubaker, 73 namely dispersion and distinctive identity, but as this identity was connected to religion rather than place of origin, the network fails to meet the third criterion of a common homeland, at least in the visible world, although there was certainly a perceived otherworldly homeland awaiting the faithful after death.”

• cites [73]Not matched

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Palmyrene merchants were probably able to take part in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian networks described in the Periplus, but they also had additional support in the ethnically based Palmyrene community, which was not open to outsiders.

“They were probably able to take part in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian networks described in the Periplus, but they also had additional support in the ethnically based Palmyrene community, which was not open to outsiders.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Christian network had limited access: one had to be a believer to get in, and once in, one was not supposed to be involved in competing religious networks.

“The Christian network had limited access: one had to be a believer in order to get in, and, once in, one was not supposed to be involved in competing religious networks.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Christianity was an exclusive religion: once a member, one was not supposed to take part in other religious cults.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Christian and Jewish merchants from the Roman and Sasanian empires would surely have been able to interact with pagan countrymen when abroad, even if perhaps not without friction, but they also had access to religious networks.

“Christian and Jewish merchants from the Roman and Sasanian (Neo-Persian) empires, would surely have been able to interact with pagan countrymen when they were abroad, even if perhaps not without friction, but they also had access to religious networks.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The Indian Ocean networks encountered in the ancient period bear strong resemblance to organizational solutions familiar from more recent and more amply documented periods.

“The Indian Ocean networks encountered in the ancient period bear strong resemblance to the organizational solutions familiar from more recent and more amply documented periods.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The resilience and longevity of such answers to the challenges to safety of life and property inherent to pre-modern trade is perhaps the most striking aspect for global history.

“With regard to global history, the most striking aspect of this is perhaps the resilience and longevity of such answers to the challenges to safety of life and property inherent to pre-modern trade.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Polytheistic religion also has elements of portability and aspects of 'religion anywhere'.

“It is true that polytheistic religion also has elements of portability and aspects of 'religion anywhere'.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

While other networks can be described as trading diasporas oriented towards a homeland, the Christian network was polycentric, all nodes having the same rank from the merchant's perspective (though not from the church's point of view).

“While the other networks can be described as trading diasporas oriented towards a homeland, the Christian network was polycentric, all nodes having the same rank when seen from the merchant's perspective (although not from the church's point of view).”